HC/E/HU 1150
European Court of Human Rights
European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR)
FRANCE
HUNGARY
26 July 2011
Final
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
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The Court reiterated that the essential object of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) was to protect the individual against arbitrary action by public authorities. Regard had to be had to the fair balance to be struck between the competing interests of the individual and of the community as a whole; and in both contexts the State enjoyed a certain margin of appreciation (Keegan v. Ireland, No 16969/90).
The Court had repeatedly held that Article 8 included a parent's right to the taking of measures to reunite him with his child and an obligation on national authorities to facilitate such a reunion (Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Romania, No 31679/96 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 336]; Nuutinen v. Finland, No 32842/96; Iglesias Gil and A.U.I. v. Spain, No 56673/000).
Regarding the enforcement of family law decisions, what was decisive was whether the national authorities had taken all necessary steps to facilitate the execution as could reasonably be expected in the special circumstances of each case (Hokkanen v. Finland, No 19823/92; Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Romania, No 31679/96; Nuutinen v. Finland, No 32842/96; Sylvester v. Austria, Nos 36812/97 and 40104/98).
In cases of child abduction the adequacy of the measure was judged by the time taken to implement it as any delay could have irremediable consequences for relations between the child and the absent parent (Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Romania, No 31679/96). The 1980 Hague Convention required the prompt return of children and under Article 11 any delay of more than six weeks by the authorities in reaching a decision could lead to a request for explanations (Neulinger and Shuruk v. Switzerland, No 41615/070 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1323]).
Turning to the facts of the case, the Court stated that it must determine whether the Hungarian authorities had made adequate and effective efforts to secure compliance with the father's right to the return of his child and the child's right to be reunited with her father (Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Romania, No 31679/96). In doing so, it had to consider their international obligations under the Brussels IIa Regulation.
Concerning the delays in the Hungarian courts, the Court noted that Article 11(3) of the Regulation required domestic courts to issue a judgment within six weeks of the application, unless there were exceptional circumstances. While the five week summer vacation could partially account for the thirteen week delay between the first and second instance judgments, there were no exceptional circumstances.
Child abduction cases were to be classified as urgent and should be heard even during the court vacation. Thus, the domestic courts had failed to act expeditiously in the proceedings to return the child, manifestly in breach of the applicable law. These delays in procedure alone were sufficient to conclude that Hungary had not complied with its positive obligations under the ECHR.
Prior to the bailiff's attempt to force the mother's compliance on 29 July 2009, the Court held that the Hungarian authorities had not taken adequate and effective measures to enforce the return order. Almost eleven months had elapsed between the final judgment on 2 September 2008 ordering a return and the disappearance of the mother and daughter on 29 July 2009.
Within this period, the only enforcement measures taken were the bailiff's unsuccessful requests to voluntarily return the child and the imposition of a relatively small fine. The other enforcement measures at the authorities' disposal were not utilised. These included seeking police assistance and the imposition of further fines.
The Court, in referring to Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Romania, No 31679/96, commented that "[a]lthough coercive measures against children are not desirable in this sensitive area, the use of sanctions must not be ruled out in the event of manifestly unlawful behaviour by one of the parents".
The Court also criticised the Hungarian authorities for not executing the return order following the mother's arrest on 27 July 2009, despite the enforceable final order. On 19 June 2009, the Hungarian Court had ordered the child to be returned with police assistance on 29 July 2009, more than one month later. The Court found no reasons justifying the delay given the requirement of expeditious action by the authorities.
In response to the Hungarian government's argument that the removal of the child from Hungary might be detrimental to her wellbeing, the Court referred to forensic psychology reports which indicated that the child was still emotionally attached to her father and would have easily adapted to returning to France. The Court did acknowledge that the passage of time could change this situation and that there may be a need to re-assess her ties to her parents and their respective environments.
The Court stressed that when enforcing the child's return, Article 8 was to apply in a manner subject to the child's best interests. It referred to the case law on the expulsion of aliens which stated that in assessing the proportionality of an expulsion measure concerning a child who has settled in the host country, it was necessary to take into account the child's best interests and wellbeing.
In particular, the court should consider the seriousness of the difficulties which he or she was likely to encounter in the country of destination and the solidity of social, cultural and family ties both with the host country and with the country of destination (Maslov v. Austria, No 1638/03; Emre v. Switzerland, No 42034/04; Neulinger and Shuruk v. Switzerland, No 41615/07; Üner v. the Netherlands, No 46410/99).
As for the enforcement of the father's rights of access, the Court found that the Hungarian courts had denied jurisdiction in the matter despite the existence of a final court decision, certified in accordance with Article 41 of the Brussels IIa Regulation. The fact that the father had not exercised his access rights in over three and half years aggravated the position of the Hungarian authorities. Notwithstanding the Hungarian authorities' margin of appreciation, the Court concluded that they had failed to fulfil their positive obligations.
Accordingly, there had been a violation of Article 8 of the ECHR. The Court awarded the father 20,000 Euros for non-pecuniary damage and 12,000 Euros in respect of costs. It rejected his claim for pecuniary damage in respect of loss of earnings. The Court reiterated that there had to be a clear causal connection between the damage claimed and the violation of the ECHR (Aktaş v. Turkey, No 24351/94). There was no such connection in this case.
Author of the summary: Peter McEleavy
Where an abducting parent does not comply voluntarily the implementation of a return order will require coercive measures to be taken. The introduction of such measures may give rise to legal and practical difficulties for the applicant. Indeed, even where ultimately successful significant delays may result before the child's future can be adjudicated upon in the State of habitual residence. In some extreme cases the delays encountered may be of such length that it may no longer be appropriate for a return order to be made.
Work of the Hague Conference
Considerable attention has been paid to the issue of enforcement at the Special Commissions convened to review the operation of the Hague Convention.
In the Conclusions of the Fourth Review Special Commission in March 2001 it was noted:
"Methods and speed of enforcement
3.9 Delays in enforcement of return orders, or their non-enforcement, in certain Contracting States are matters of serious concern. The Special Commission calls upon Contracting States to enforce return orders promptly and effectively.
3.10 It should be made possible for courts, when making return orders, to include provisions to ensure that the order leads to the prompt and effective return of the child.
3.11 Efforts should be made by Central Authorities, or by other competent authorities, to track the outcome of return orders and to determine in each case whether enforcement is delayed or not achieved."
See: < www.hcch.net >, under "Child Abduction Section" then "Special Commission meetings on the practical operation of the Convention" and "Conclusions and Recommendations".
In preparation for the Fifth Review Special Commission in November 2006 the Permanent Bureau prepared a report entitled: "Enforcement of Orders Made Under the 1980 Convention - Towards Principles of Good Practice", Prel. Doc. No 7 of October 2006, (available on the Hague Conference website at < www.hcch.net >, under "Child Abduction Section" then "Special Commission meetings on the practical operation of the Convention" then "Preliminary Documents").
The 2006 Special Commission encouraged support for the principles of good practice set out in the report which will serve moreover as a future Guide to Good Practice on Enforcement Issues, see: < www.hcch.net >, under "Child Abduction Section" then "Special Commission meetings on the practical operation of the Convention" then "Conclusions and Recommendations" then "Special Commission of October-November 2006"
European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR)
The ECrtHR has in recent years paid particular attention to the issue of the enforcement of return orders under the Hague Convention. On several occasions it has found Contracting States to the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention have failed in their positive obligations to take all the measures that could reasonably be expected to enforce a return order. This failure has in turn led to a breach of the applicant parent's right to respect for their family life, as guaranteed by Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), see:
Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Romania, No. 31679/96, (2001) 31 E.H.R.R. 7, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 336];
Sylvester v. Austria, Nos. 36812/97 and 40104/98, (2003) 37 E.H.R.R. 17, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 502];
H.N. v. Poland, No. 77710/01, (2005) 45 EHRR 1054, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 811];
Karadžic v. Croatia, No. 35030/04, (2005) 44 EHRR 896, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 819];
P.P. v. Poland, No. 8677/03, 8 January 2008, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 941].
The Court will have regard to the circumstances of the case and the action taken by the national authorities. A delay of 8 months between the delivery of a return order and enforcement was held not to have constituted a breach of the left behind parent's right to family life in:
Couderc v. Czech Republic, 31 January 2001, No. 54429/00, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 859].
The Court has dismissed challenges by parents who have argued that enforcement measures, including coercive steps, have interfered with their right to a family life, see:
Paradis v. Germany, 15 May 2003, No. 4783/03, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 860];
A.B. v. Poland, No. 33878/96, 20 November 2007, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 943];
Maumousseau and Washington v. France, No. 39388/05, 6 December 2007, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 942].
The positive obligation to act when faced with the enforcement of a custody order in a non-Hague Convention child abduction case was upheld in:
Bajrami v. Albania, 12 December 2006 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 898].
However, where an applicant parent has contributed to delay this will be a relevant consideration, see as regards the enforcement of a custody order following upon an abduction:
Ancel v. Turkey, No. 28514/04, 17 February 2009, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1015].
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has held that the immediate enforcement of a return order whilst a final legal challenge was still pending did not breach Articles 8, 17, 19 or 25 of the American Convention on Human Rights (San José Pact), see:
Case 11.676, X et Z v. Argentina, 3 October 2000, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Report n°71/00, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 772].
Case Law on Enforcement
The following are examples of cases where a return order was made but enforcement was resisted:
Belgium
Cour de cassation 30/10/2008, C.G. c. B.S., N° de rôle: C.06.0619.F, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/BE 750];
Canada
H.D. et N.C. c. H.F.C., Cour d'appel (Montréal), 15 mai 2000, N° 500-09-009601-006 (500-04-021679-007), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 915];
Switzerland
427/01/1998, 49/III/97/bufr/mour, Cour d'appel du canton de Berne (Suisse); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 433];
5P.160/2001/min, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 423];
5P.454/2000/ZBE/bnm, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 786];
5P.115/2006/bnm, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 840].
Enforcement may equally be rendered impossible because of the reaction of the children concerned, see:
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re B. (Children) (Abduction: New Evidence) [2001] 2 FCR 531; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 420];
United Kingdom - Scotland
Cameron v. Cameron (No. 3) 1997 SCLR 192; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 112];
Spain
Auto Juzgado de Familia Nº 6 de Zaragoza (España), Expediente Nº 1233/95-B; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ES 899].
Enforcement of Return Orders Pending Appeal
For examples of cases where return orders have been enforced notwithstanding an appeal being pending see:
Argentina
Case 11.676, X et Z v. Argentina, 3 October 2000, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Report n° 11/00 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 772].
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has held that the immediate enforcement of a return order whilst a final legal challenge was still pending did not breach Articles 8, 17, 19 or 25 of the American Convention on Human Rights (San José Pact).
Spain
Sentencia nº 120/2002 (Sala Primera); Número de Registro 129/1999. Recurso de amparo [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ES 907];
United States of America
Fawcett v. McRoberts, 326 F.3d 491 (4th Cir. Va., 2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 494].
In Miller v. Miller, 240 F.3d 392 (4th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 461] while it is not clear whether the petition was lodged prior to the return being executed, the appeal was nevertheless allowed to proceed.
However, in Bekier v. Bekier, 248 F.3d 1051 (11th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 909] an appeal was not allowed to proceed once the child was returned to the State of habitual residence.
In the European Union where following the entry into force of the Brussels IIa Regulation there is now an obligation that abductions cases be dealt with in a six week time frame, the European Commission has suggested that to guarantee compliance return orders might be enforced pending appeal, see Practice Guide for the application of Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003.
Article 21 has been subjected to varying interpretations. Contracting States favouring a literal interpretation have ruled that the provision does not establish a basis of jurisdiction for courts to intervene in access matters and is focussed on procedural assistance from the relevant Central Authority. Other Contracting States have allowed proceedings to be brought on the basis of Article 21 to give effect to existing access rights or even to create new access rights.
A literal interpretation of the provision has found favour in:
Austria
S. v. S., 25 May 1998, transcript (official translation), Regional civil court at Graz, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 245];
Germany
2 UF 286/97, Oberlandesgericht Bamberg, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 488];
United States of America
Bromley v. Bromley, 30 F. Supp. 2d 857, 860-61 (E.D. Pa. 1998). [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 223];
Teijeiro Fernandez v. Yeager, 121 F. Supp. 2d 1118, 1125 (W.D. Mich. 2000);
Janzik v. Schand, 22 November 2000, United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 463];
Wiggill v. Janicki, 262 F. Supp. 2d 687, 689 (S.D.W. Va. 2003);
Yi Ly v. Heu, 296 F. Supp. 2d 1009, 1011 (D. Minn. 2003);
In re Application of Adams ex. rel. Naik v. Naik, 363 F. Supp. 2d 1025, 1030 (N.D. Ill. 2005);
Wiezel v. Wiezel-Tyrnauer, 388 F. Supp. 2d 206 (S.D.N.Y. 2005), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 828];
Cantor v. Cohen, 442 F.3d 196 (4th Cir. 2006), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 827].
In Cantor, the only US appellate decision on Article 21, there was a dissenting judgment which found that the US implementing act did provide a jurisdictional basis for federal courts to hear an application with regard to an existing access right.
United Kingdom - England & Wales
In Re G. (A Minor) (Enforcement of Access Abroad) [1993] Fam 216 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 110].
More recently however the English Court of Appeal has suggested that it might be prepared to consider a more permissive interpretation:
Hunter v. Murrow [2005] [2005] 2 F.L.R. 1119, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 809].
Baroness Hale has recommended the elaboration of a procedure whereby the facilitation of rights of access in the United Kingdom under Article 21 could be contemplated at the same time as the return of the child under Article 12:
Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2006] UKHL 51[INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880].
Switzerland
Arrondissement judiciaire I Courterlary-Moutier-La Neuveville (Suisse) 11 October 1999, N° C 99 4313 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 454].
A more permissive interpretation of Article 21 has indeed been adopted elsewhere, see:
United Kingdom - Scotland
Donofrio v. Burrell, 2000 S.L.T. 1051 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 349].
Wider still is the interpretation adopted in New Zealand, see:
Gumbrell v. Jones [2001] NZFLR 593 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 446].
Australia
The position in Australia has evolved in the light of statutory reforms.
Initially a State Central Authority could only apply for an order that was ‘necessary or appropriate to organise or secure the effective exercise of rights of access to a child in Australia', see:
Director-General, Department of Families Youth & Community Care v. Reissner [1999] FamCA 1238, (1999) 25 Fam LR 330, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 278].
Subsequently it acquired the power to initiate proceedings to establish access rights:
State Central Authority & Peddar [2008] FamCA 519, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 1107];
State Central Authority & Quang [2009] FamCA 1038, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 1106].
Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.
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Lorsqu'un parent ravisseur ne remet pas volontairement un enfant dont le retour a été judiciairement ordonné, l'exécution implique des mesures coercitives. L'introduction de telles mesures peut donner lieu à des difficultés juridiques et pratiques pour le demandeur. En effet, même lorsque le retour a finalement lieu, des retards considérables peuvent être intervenus avant que les juridictions de l'État de résidence habituelle ne statuent sur l'avenir de l'enfant. Dans certains cas exceptionnels les retards sont tels qu'il n'est plus approprié qu'un retour soit ordonné.
Travail de la Conférence de La Haye
Les Commissions spéciales sur le fonctionnement de la Convention de La Haye ont concentré des efforts considérables sur la question de l'exécution des décisions de retour.
Dans les conclusions de la Quatrième Commission spéciale de mars 2001, il fut noté :
« Méthodes et rapidité d'exécution des procédures
3.9 Les retards dans l'exécution des décisions de retour, ou l'inexécution de celles-ci, dans certains [É]tats contractants soulèvent de sérieuses inquiétudes. La Commission spéciale invite les [É]tats contractants à exécuter les décisions de retour sans délai et effectivement.
3.10 Lorsqu'ils rendent une décision de retour, les tribunaux devraient avoir les moyens d'inclure dans leur décision des dispositions garantissant que la décision aboutisse à un retour effectif et immédiat de l'enfant.
3.11 Les Autorités centrales ou autres autorités compétentes devraient fournir des efforts pour assurer le suivi des décisions de retour et pour déterminer dans chaque cas si l'exécution a eu lieu ou non, ou si elle a été retardée. »
Voir < www.hcch.net >, sous les rubriques « Espace Enlèvement d'enfants » et « Réunions des Commissions spéciales sur le fonctionnement pratique de la Convention » puis « Conclusions et Recommandations ».
Afin de préparer la Cinquième Commission spéciale en novembre 2006, le Bureau permanent a élaboré un rapport sur « L'exécution des décisions fondées sur la Convention de La Haye de 1980 - Vers des principes de bonne pratique », Doc. prél. No 7 d'octobre 2006.
(Disponible sur le site de la Conférence à l'adresse suivante : < www.hcch.net >, sous les rubriques « Espace Enlèvement d'enfants » et « Réunions des Commissions spéciales sur le fonctionnement pratique de la Convention » puis « Documents préliminaires »).
Cette Commission spéciale souligna l'importance des principes de bonne pratique développés dans le rapport qui serviront à l'élaboration d'un futur Guide de bonnes pratiques sur les questions liées à l'exécution, voir : < www.hcch.net >, sous les rubriques « Espace Enlèvement d'enfants » et « Réunions des Commissions spéciales sur le fonctionnement pratique de la Convention » puis « Conclusions et Recommandations » et enfin « Commission Spéciale d'Octobre-Novembre 2006 »
Cour européenne des droits de l'homme (CourEDH)
Ces dernières années, la CourEDH a accordé une attention particulière à la question de l'exécution des décisions de retour fondées sur la Convention de La Haye. À plusieurs reprises elle estima que des États membres avaient failli à leur obligation positive de prendre toutes les mesures auxquelles on pouvait raisonnablement s'attendre en vue de l'exécution, les condamnant sur le fondement de l'article 8 de la Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme (CEDH) sur le respect de la vie familiale. Voir :
Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Romania, 25 January 2000 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 336] ;
Sylvester v. Austria, 24 April 2003 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 502] ;
H.N. v. Poland, 13 September 2005 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 811] ;
Karadžic v. Croatia, 15 December 2005 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 819] ;
P.P. v. Poland, Application no. 8677/03, 8 January 2008, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 941].
La Cour tient compte de l'ensemble des circonstances de l'affaire et des mesures prises par les autorités nationales. Un retard de 8 mois entre l'ordonnance de retour et son exécution a pu être considéré comme ne violant pas le droit du parent demandeur au respect de sa vie familiale dans :
Couderc v. Czech Republic, 31 January 2001, Application n°54429/00, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 859].
La Cour a par ailleurs rejeté les requêtes de parents qui avaient soutenu que les mesures d'exécution prises, y compris les mesures coercitives, violaient le droit au respect de leur vie familiale :
Paradis v. Germany, 15 May 2003, Application n°4783/03, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 860] ;
A.B. v. Poland, Application No. 33878/96, 20 November 2007, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 943] ;
Maumousseau and Washington v. France, Application No 39388/05, 6 December 2007, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 942] ;
L'obligation positive de prendre des mesures face à l'exécution d'une décision concernant le droit de garde d'un enfant a également été reconnue dans une affaire ne relevant pas de la Convention de La Haye :
Bajrami v. Albania, 12 December 2006 [Référence INCADAT: HC/E/ 898].
Ancel v. Turkey, No. 28514/04, 17 February 2009, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 1015].
Commission interaméricaine des Droits de l'Homme
La Commission interaméricaine des Droits de l'Homme a décidé que l'exécution immédiate d'une ordonnance de retour qui avait fait l'objet d'un recours ne violait pas les articles 8, 17, 19 ni 25 de la Convention américaine relative aux Droits de l'Homme (Pacte de San José), voir :
Case 11.676, X et Z v. Argentina, 3 October 2000, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Report n°71/00 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 772].
Jurisprudence en matière d'exécution
Dans les exemples suivants l'exécution de l'ordonnance de retour s'est heurtée à des difficultés, voir :
Belgique
Cour de cassation 30/10/2008, C.G. c. B.S., N° de rôle: C.06.0619.F, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/BE 750] ;
Canada
H.D. et N.C. c. H.F.C., Cour d'appel (Montréal), 15 mai 2000, N° 500-09-009601-006 (500-04-021679-007), [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/CA 915] ;
Suisse
427/01/1998, 49/III/97/bufr/mour, Cour d’appel du canton de Berne (Suisse); [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/CH 433] ;
5P.160/2001/min, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile); [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/CH 423] ;
5P.454/2000/ZBE/bnm, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile); [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/CH 786] ;
5P.115/2006 /bnm, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile); [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/CH 840] ;
L'exécution peut également être rendue impossible en raison de la réaction des enfants en cause. Voir :
Royaume-Uni - Angleterre et Pays de Galles
Re B. (Children) (Abduction: New Evidence) [2001] 2 FCR 531; [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/UKe 420]
Lorsqu'un enfant a été caché pendant plusieurs années à l'issue d'une ordonnance de retour, il peut ne plus être dans son intérêt d'être l'objet d'une ordonnance de retour. Voir :
Royaume-Uni - Écosse
Cameron v. Cameron (No. 3) 1997 SCLR 192, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/UKs 112] ;
Espagne
Auto Juzgado de Familia Nº 6 de Zaragoza (España), Expediente Nº 1233/95-B [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ES 899].
L'article 21 a fait l'objet d'interprétations divergentes. Les États contractants qui privilégient une interprétation littérale considèrent que cette disposition ne crée pas de compétence judiciaire en matière de droit de visite mais se limite à organiser une assistance procédurale de la part des Autorités centrales. D'autres États contractants autorisent l'introduction de procédures judiciaires sur le fondement de l'article 21 en vue de donner effet à un droit de visite préalablement reconnu voire de reconnaître un nouveau droit de visite.
États préférant une interprétation littérale de l'article 21 :
Autriche
S. v. S., 25 May 1998, transcript (official translation), Regional civil court at Graz, [Référence INCADAT: HC/E/AT 245].
Allemagne
2 UF 286/97, Oberlandesgericht Bamberg, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/DE 488].
États-Unis d'Amérique
Bromley v. Bromley, 30 F. Supp. 2d 857, 860-61 (E.D. Pa. 1998), [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/USf 223] ;
Teijeiro Fernandez v. Yeager, 121 F. Supp. 2d 1118, 1125 (W.D. Mich. 2000) ;
Janzik v. Schand, 22 November 2000, United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/USf 463] ;
Wiggill v. Janicki, 262 F. Supp. 2d 687, 689 (S.D.W. Va. 2003) ;
Yi Ly v. Heu, 296 F. Supp. 2d 1009, 1011 (D. Minn. 2003) ;
In re Application of Adams ex. rel. Naik v. Naik, 363 F. Supp. 2d 1025, 1030 (N.D. Ill. 2005) ;
Wiezel v. Wiezel-Tyrnauer, 388 F. Supp. 2d 206 (S.D.N.Y. 2005), [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/USf @828@] ;
Cantor v. Cohen, 442 F.3d 196 (4th Cir. 2006), [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/USf @827@].
Cette décision est la seule rendue par une juridiction d'appel aux États-Unis d'Amérique concernant l'article 21, mais avec une opinion dissidente selon laquelle la loi mettant en œuvre la Convention en droit américain donne compétence aux juridictions fédérales pour connaître d'une demande concernant l'exercice d'un droit de visite préexistant.
Royaume-Uni - Angleterre et Pays de Galles
In Re G. (A Minor) (Enforcement of Access Abroad) [1993] Fam 216 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/UKs 110]
Plus récemment, la Cour d'appel anglaise a suggéré dans Hunter v. Murrow [2005] EWCA Civ 976, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/UKe 809], qu'elle n'était pas imperméable à l'idée de privilégier une interprétation plus large similaire à celle suivie dans d'autres États :
Quoique le juge Hale ait recommandé l'élaboration d'une procédure qui permettrait de faciliter le droit de visite au Royaume-Uni en application de l'article 21 en même temps que d'organiser le retour de l'enfant en application de l'article 12 :
Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2006] UKHL 51 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/UKe 880].
Suisse
Arrondissement judiciaire I Courterlary-Moutier-La Neuveville (Suisse) 11 Octobre 1999 , N° C 99 4313 [Référence INCADAT: HC/E/CH 454].
Une interprétation plus permissive de l'article 21 a été adoptée dans d'autres États :
Royaume-Uni - Écosse
Donofrio v. Burrell, 2000 S.L.T. 1051 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/UKs 349].
Une interprétation encore plus large est privilégiée en Nouvelle-Zélande :
Gumbrell v. Jones [2001] NZFLR 593 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/NZ 446].
Australie
Director-General, Department of Families Youth & Community Care v. Reissner [1999] FamCA 1238, (1999) 25 Fam LR 330 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/AU 278].
Résumé INCADAT en cours de préparation.