CASE

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Case Name

W.(V.) v. S.(D.), (1996) 2 SCR 108, (1996) 134 DLR 4th 481

INCADAT reference

HC/E/CA 17

Court

Country

CANADA

Name

Supreme Court of Canada

Level

Superior Appellate Court

Judge(s)
Lamer C.J.C., La Forest, L'Heureux-Dubé, Sopinka, Gonthier, Cory, McLachlin, Iacobucci, Major JJ.

States involved

Requesting State

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Requested State

CANADA

Decision

Date

5 February 1996

Status

Final

Grounds

Aims of the Convention - Preamble, Arts 1 and 2 | Rights of Custody - Art. 3 | Procedural Matters | Interpretation of the Convention

Order

Appeal dismissed, return ordered

HC article(s) Considered

1 3 5 11 12 13(1)(a) 13(1)(b) 13(2) 21 13(3)

HC article(s) Relied Upon

5

Other provisions

-

Authorities | Cases referred to
Gorden v. Goertz, (1995) SCC, No. 24622, 2 May 1996; Thomson v Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290, 9 Australian Journal of Family Law (1995) 5, 84 Rev. crit. 1995, 342.

INCADAT comment

Aims & Scope of the Convention

General Approach to Interpretation
Interpretation
Pérez-Vera Report

Article 12 Return Mechanism

Rights of Custody
What is a Right of Custody for Convention Purposes?
Rights of Custody held by a Court

Inter-Relationship with International / Regional Instruments and National Law

Non-Convention Child Abduction Cases under National Law
Policy Issues

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | FR | ES

Facts

The child, a girl, was 7 at the date of the alleged wrongful removal. She had lived in the United States all of her life. Her parents were divorced in 1988. The father was awarded custody and the mother supervised access. On 13 February 1990 the father took the child to Quebec.

On 8 May 1990 the Maryland Circuit Court found the father guilty of contempt and awarded interim custody to the mother. The Court of Special Appeals affirmed that judgment on 14 May 1991.

On 6 May 1991, the father filed a motion in the Superior Court of Quebec for custody. The mother countered by applying for the return of the child under the Convention. On 30 August 1991 the Superior Court granted interim custody to the father's sister following an agreement between the parties. The parties recognised under that agreement that the removal of the child had been wrongful within the meaning of the Convention as implemented in Quebec (R.S.Q. c. A-23.01).

On 8 January 1993, the Superior Court of Quebec dismissed the father's petition for custody and ordered the child's return to the United States. The father appealed. On 2 August 1993 the Quebec Court of Appeal dismissed the father's appeal and the mother returned to the United States with the child. The father appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada.

Ruling

The court found that the Convention was not applicable to the case but dismissed the appeal on the basis that the child's interests were best served by a return to the United States.

Grounds

Aims of the Convention - Preamble, Arts 1 and 2

The Convention presumes that the interests of children who have been wrongfully removed are ordinarily better served by immediately repatriating them to their original jurisdiction, where the merits of custody should have been determined before their removal. The Convention represents a compromise between the flexibility derived from reviewing each situation on its merits and the effectiveness needed to deter international child abduction, which depends in particular on the rapidity of the return procedure.

Rights of Custody - Art. 3

The Convention makes a clear distinction between rights of access, which include the right to take a child for a limited period of time to a place other than the child's habitual residence and custody rights, which are defined as including rights relating to the care of the person of the child and, in particular, the right to determine the child's place of residence. What the Convention means by rights of custody must be determined independently of the domestic law of the jurisdictions to which it applies. The Court of Appeal confused the concepts of custody rights and access rights. The interpretation of that court amounted to saying that any removal of a child without the consent of the parent having access rights could set in motion the mandatory return procedure provided for in the Act and thus indirectly afford the same protection to access rights as is afforded to custody rights. The removal of a child from one country to another is a significant change in that child's situation and may justify an application for a review of the custody award to promote the child's best interests. However, this does not mean that the courts in the child's original jurisdiction automatically have rights of custody within the meaning of the Convention following that removal. The Superior Court and the Court of Appeal erred in applying the Convention to this case. When the child was removed the father had been awarded custody on a permanent basis and the mother had no rights of custody. The proceedings pending related solely to the mother's access rights. A custody order obtained by the mother ex parte in the United States following the child's removal did not make the child's retention in Quebec wrongful. The fact that the removal of the child was a circumstance that might permit the custody order to be reviewed, did not lead to the conclusion that either the mother or the American court had custody rights within the meaning of the Convention as implemented in Quebec. The custodial parent has the right to choose the child's place of residence, subject to the non-custodial parent's right to object to that choice if he or she considers it contrary to the child's interests.

Procedural Matters

The Court of Appeal erred in concluding that the Act was applicable. Although the parties admitted that the Act was applicable to the proceedings, the courts were not bound by that admission. Parties cannot attribute jurisdiction to a court that it does not otherwise have. A court may of its own motion raise its own lack of jurisdiction by reason of the subject matter at any stage of the case, even on appeal.

Interpretation of the Convention

Reference was made to many different aids to interpretation: the preliminary material in the Actes et documents de la Quatorzième session, t. III, Child Abduction (1982), the Pérez-Vera Report, academic articles, the Preamble and Article 1.

INCADAT comment

The Supreme Court's first consideration of the concept of rights of custody came in the case of Thomson v Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 11].

For academic commentary on these decisions see:

M. Bailey, "The Right of a Non-Custodial Parent to an Order for Return of a Child Under the Hague Convention" (1996) Canadian Journal of Family Law 287;

M. Bailey, "Canada's Implementation of the 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of the International Child Abduction" (2000) New York University Journal of International Law and Policy 17.

Interpretation

Preparation of INCADAT case law analysis in progress.

Pérez-Vera Report

Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.

What is a Right of Custody for Convention Purposes?

Courts in an overwhelming majority of Contracting States have accepted that a right of veto over the removal of the child from the jurisdiction amounts to a right of custody for Convention purposes, see:

Australia
In the Marriage of Resina [1991] FamCA 33, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 257];

State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];

Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care and Hobbs, 24 September 1999, Family Court of Australia (Brisbane) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 294];

Austria
2 Ob 596/91, OGH, 05 February 1992, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 375];

Canada
Thomson v. Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 11].

The Supreme Court did draw a distinction between a non-removal clause in an interim custody order and in a final order. It suggested that were a non-removal clause in a final custody order to be regarded as a custody right for Convention purposes, that could have serious implications for the mobility rights of the primary carer.

Thorne v. Dryden-Hall, (1997) 28 RFL (4th) 297 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 12];

Decision of 15 December 1998, [1999] R.J.Q. 248 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 334];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
C. v. C. (Minor: Abduction: Rights of Custody Abroad) [1989] 1 WLR 654, [1989] 2 All ER 465, [1989] 1 FLR 403, [1989] Fam Law 228 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 34];

Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Foreign Custody Rights) [2006] UKHL 51, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880];

France
Ministère Public c. M.B. 79 Rev. crit. 1990, 529, note Y. Lequette [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 62];

Germany
2 BvR 1126/97, Bundesverfassungsgericht, (Federal Constitutional Court), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 338];

10 UF 753/01, Oberlandesgericht Dresden, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 486];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Bordera v. Bordera 1995 SLT 1176 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 183];

A.J. v. F.J. [2005] CSIH 36, 2005 1 SC 428 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 803];

South Africa
Sonderup v. Tondelli 2001 (1) SA 1171 (CC), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 309];

Switzerland
5P.1/1999, Tribunal fédéral suisse, (Swiss Supreme Court), 29 March 1999, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 427].

United States of America
In the United States, the Federal Courts of Appeals were divided on the appropriate interpretation to give between 2000 and 2010.

A majority followed the 2nd Circuit in adopting a narrow interpretation, see:

Croll v. Croll, 229 F.3d 133 (2d Cir., 2000; cert. den. Oct. 9, 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 313];

Gonzalez v. Gutierrez, 311 F.3d 942 (9th Cir 2002) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 493];

Fawcett v. McRoberts, 326 F.3d 491, 500 (4th Cir. 2003), cert. denied 157 L. Ed. 2d 732, 124 S. Ct. 805 (2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 494];

Abbott v. Abbott, 542 F.3d 1081 (5th Cir. 2008), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 989].

The 11th Circuit however endorsed the standard international interpretation.

Furnes v. Reeves, 362 F.3d 702 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 578].

The matter was settled, at least where an applicant parent has a right to decide the child's country of residence, or the court in the State of habitual residence is seeking to protect its own jurisdiction pending further decrees, by the US Supreme Court endorsing the standard international interpretation. 

Abbott v. Abbott, 130 S. Ct. 1983 (2010), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 1029].

The standard international interpretation has equally been accepted by the European Court of Human Rights, see:

Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No. 41615/07, 8 January 2009 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1001].

Confirmed by the Grand Chamber: Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No 41615/07, 6 July 2010 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1323].


Right to Object to a Removal

Where an individual does not have a right of veto over the removal of a child from the jurisdiction, but merely a right to object and to apply to a court to prevent such a removal, it has been held in several jurisdictions that this is not enough to amount to a custody right for Convention purposes:

Canada
W.(V.) v. S.(D.), 134 DLR 4th 481 (1996), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA17];

Ireland
W.P.P. v. S.R.W. [2001] ILRM 371, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 271];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re V.-B. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1999] 2 FLR 192, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 261];

S. v. H. (Abduction: Access Rights) [1998] Fam 49 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 36];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Pirrie v. Sawacki 1997 SLT 1160, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 188].

This interpretation has also been upheld by the Court of Justice of the European Union:
Case C-400/10 PPU J. McB. v. L.E., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].

The European Court held that to find otherwise would be incompatible with the requirements of legal certainty and with the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others, notably those of the sole custodian.

For academic commentary see:

P. Beaumont & P. McEleavy The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, Oxford, OUP, 1999, p. 75 et seq.;

M. Bailey The Right of a Non-Custodial Parent to an Order for Return of a Child Under the Hague Convention; Canadian Journal of Family Law, 1996, p. 287;

C. Whitman 'Croll v Croll: The Second Circuit Limits 'Custody Rights' Under the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction' 2001 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 605.

Rights of Custody held by a Court

Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.

Policy Issues

When a parent seeks the return of a child outside the scope of the Hague Convention, or another international or regional instrument, the court seised will have to decide how to balance the interests of the child with the general international policy of combating the illicit transfer and non-return of children abroad (Art. 11(1) UNCRC 1990).

Canada
Shortridge-Tsuchiya v. Tsuchiya, 2009 BCSC 541, [2009] B.C.W.L.D. 4138, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 1109].

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Appellate courts have struggled to agree on the appropriate balance to be struck.

An internationalist interpretation, favouring an approach mirrored on that of Hague Convention, was adopted by the Court of Appeal in:

Re E. (Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1999] 2 FLR 642 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 589];

Re J. (Child Returned Abroad: Human Rights) [2004] EWCA Civ. 417, [2004] 2 FLR 85 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 586].

However, in the earlier case Re J.A. (Child Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1998] 1 FLR 231 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 588] a return order was not made, there being concerns as to whether the legal system in the foreign jurisdiction would be able to act in the best interests of the child. A factor in that case was that the abducting mother, who was British, would not be entitled to relocate from the child's State of habitual residence unless she had the consent of the father.

In Re J. (A Child) (Return to Foreign Jurisdiction: Convention Rights), [2005] UKHL 40, [2006] 1 AC 80, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 801] the House of Lords expressly stated that the approach of the Court of Appeal in Re J.A. (Child Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1998] 1 FLR 231 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 588] was the one to be preferred.

The House of Lords held that the rationale of the Hague Convention necessarily meant that the State of refuge might on occasion have to do something which was not in the best interests of the individual child involved. States parties had accepted this disadvantage to some individual children for the sake of the greater advantage to children in general.  However, there was no warrant, either in statute or authority, for the principles of the Hague Convention to be extended to countries which were not parties to it. In a non-Convention case the court must act in accordance with the welfare of the individual child. Whilst there was no ‘strong presumption' in favour of return on the facts of an individual case a summary return may very well be in the best interests of the individual child.

It may be noted that in Re F. (Children) (Abduction: Removal Outside Jurisdiction) [2008] EWCA Civ. 854, [2008] 2 F.L.R. 1649 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 982] a trial judge who felt compelled to discharge his original order for return in the light, inter alia, of the ruling in Re M. had his judgment overturned. The Court of Appeal did not, however, comment on the ruling of the House of Lords and the case ostensibly turned on the existence of new evidence, pointing to the inevitability of the mother's deportation.

In E.M. (Lebanon) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] UKHL 64, [2009] 1 A.C. 1198 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 994] an immigration case centred around the wrongful removal of a child from a non-Convention country, the House of Lords ruled that a return would lead to a violation of the child's and his mother's right to family life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). However, it must be noted that on the facts the child's only ‘family life' was with the mother, the father having had no contact with the child since the day of his birth. A majority of the panel (4:1) held that the discriminatory nature of Lebanese family law, which would have led to the automatic transfer of care for the child being passed from mother to father, upon the child reaching his 7th birthday, would not have led to a breach of the ECHR.