CASE

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Case Name

A v A and another (Children: Habitual Residence) (Reunite International Child Abduction Centre intervening) [2013] UKSC 60 [2013] 3 WLR 761

INCADAT reference

HC/E/PK 1233

Court

Country

UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES

Name

United Kingdom Supreme Court

Level

Superior Appellate Court

Judge(s)
Lady Hale (Deputy President), Lord Wilson, Lord Reed, Lord Hughes, Lord Toulson

States involved

Requesting State

UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES

Requested State

PAKISTAN

Decision

Date

9 September 2013

Status

Final

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3 | Removal and Retention - Arts 3 and 12 | Jurisdiction Issues - Art. 16 | Non-Convention Issues | Brussels IIa Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003)

Order

-

HC article(s) Considered

3 8 10 14 16

HC article(s) Relied Upon

-

Other provisions
Articles 1, 2, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20 and 21 of the Brussels IIa Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003)
Authorities | Cases referred to
Al-H (Rashid) v F (Sara) [2001] EWCA Civ 186, [2001] 1 F.L.R. 951, CA (Civ Div); R. v Barnet LBC Ex p. Shah [1983] 2 A.C. 309, HL; DL v EL (Hague Abduction Convention: Effect of Reversal of Return Order on Appeal) [2013] EWCA Civ 865, CA (Civ Div); Re N (A Child) (Abduction: Appeal) [2012] EWCA Civ 1086, CA (Civ Div); Re H-K (Children) (Habitual Residence) [2011] EWCA Civ 1100, [2012] 1 F.L.R. 436, CA (Civ Div); SH v HH [2011] EWCA Civ 796, CA (Civ Div); Mercredi v Chaffe (C-497/10 PPU) [2012] Fam. 22, [2011] 3 W.L.R. 1229, ECJ (1st Chamber); Re I (A Child) (Contact Application: Jurisdiction) [2009] UKSC 10, [2010] 1 A.C. 319, SC; Re P-J (Children) (Abduction: Habitual Residence: Consent) [2009] EWCA Civ 588, [2010] 1 W.L.R. 1237, CA (Civ Div); Proceedings Brought by A (C-523/07) [2010] Fam. 42, [2009] E.C.R. I-2805, ECJ; Re B (A Child) (Forced Marriage: Wardship: Jurisdiction) [2008] EWHC 1436 (Fam), [2008] 2 F.L.R. 1624, Fam Div; Owusu v Jackson (t/a Villa Holidays Bal Inn Villas) (C-281/02) [2005] Q.B. 801, [2005] E.C.R. I-1383, ECJ; Re R (Abduction: Habitual Residence) [2003] EWHC 1968 (Fam), [2004] 1 F.L.R. 216, Fam Div; Re S (A Child) (Abduction: Residence Order) [2002] EWCA Civ 1941; [2003] 1 F.L.R. 1008, CA (Civ Div); B v H (Habitual Residence: Wardship) [2002] 1 F.L.R. 388, Fam Div; Re M (A Minor) (Abduction: Habitual Residence)[1996] 1 F.L.R. 887, CA (Civ Div); Re S (Minors) (Convention on Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam. 70, Fam Div; Re H (Minors) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1991] 2 A.C. 476, HL; Re J (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 A.C. 562, HL; Re P (GE) (An Infant) [1965] Ch. 568, CA; R. v Sandbach Justices Ex p. Smith [1951] 1 K.B. 62, KBD; Re Willoughby (1885) L.R. 30 Ch. D. 324, CA; Hope v Hope 43 E.R. 534, (1854) 4 De G.M. & G. 328, QB.

INCADAT comment

Aims & Scope of the Convention

Removal & Retention
Anticipated Non-Return
Habitual Residence
Habitual Residence
Can a Child be left without a Habitual Residence?

Inter-Relationship with International / Regional Instruments and National Law

Non-Convention Child Abduction Cases under National Law
Policy Issues

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | FR | ES

Facts

The proceedings related to four children, born in 2001, 2002, 2005 and 2010. The parents had entered into an arranged marriage in Pakistan in 1999 and the mother came to the United Kingdom in 2000 where the first three children were born. After the birth of the third child, the parents' marriage ran into difficulties, and between 2006 and 2008, they lived apart. Following a domestic incident, the father was arrested, but the mother subsequently dropped charges.

On 13 October 2009, the mother took the three children to Pakistan for a 3-week vacation. She was pressurised by maternal and paternal families to reconcile with the father. She agreed to reconcile on the basis that the family would return to England.

The mother's presence in Pakistan thereafter became involuntary. The children were entered into local schools against her wishes and the father removed her passport and the children's passports. The mother then became pregnant. She was repeatedly beaten, threatened and abused by the husband and his family. She was not allowed out of her accommodation unaccompanied.

Following the birth of the child, the maternal grandfather commenced proceedings to secure the mother's release. On 15 May 2011, the mother was able to visit the maternal grandfather. She then recovered her passport and on 17 May, she returned to England. On 24 May, the father issued custody proceedings in Pakistan. These were not served on the mother.

On 20 June 2011, the mother obtained an order from the Family Division of the High Court in London for the immediate return of the children. The order was made in wardship, on the basis that all the children were habitually resident in England and Wales.

The mother issued an application for an injunction to freeze the father's assets in the jurisdiction. This was granted on 31 October 2011. She subsequently sought enforcement through sequestration proceedings. On 20 February 2012, the High Court (Parker J.) re-affirmed the order for the return of the children and advanced enforcement against the assets of the father's family within the jurisdiction.

The father's appeal was allowed in part, see: A v A (Children) (Habitual Residence) [2012] EWCA Civ 1396 [2013] Fam. 232 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 1192]. The Court of Appeal held by a majority that the youngest sibling was not habitually resident in England and Wales. The Court unanimously upheld the finding that the three older siblings had retained their habitual residence in England and Wales after being retained in Pakistan.

The mother was subsequently granted leave to appeal to the United Kingdom Supreme Court to challenge the ruling in respect of the youngest child.

Ruling

Appeal allowed; the Supreme Court unanimously affirmed that English law retained a discretionary, residual basis of jurisdiction over children based on their British nationality. The case was remitted to the trial court to decide whether to exercise this jurisdiction. Were the trial court not to exercise the jurisdiction, a preliminary ruling application would be made to the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) to enable the Supreme Court to decide on the habitual residence of the child.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3

The Supreme Court noted that there had been academic and judicial debate as to whether the concept of habitual residence as developed by the courts of England and Wales for the purposes of the Family Law Act 1986 and the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention, differed from the concept of habitual residence as interpreted by the CJEU for the purposes of the Brussels IIa Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003). The Court held that it was not strictly necessary for the issue to be resolved, but added that it was highly desirable that the same test be adopted and that, if there was any difference, it was the approach adopted by the Court of Justice which should be favoured.

Lady Hale, delivering the opinion of the majority (Lord Wilson, Lord Reed and Lord Toulson), acknowledged that the courts in England and Wales had supplied their own test, derived from the test of "ordinary residence". In R v Barnet London Borough Council, ex p Shah [1983] 2 AC 309, Lord Scarman stated that that "ordinarily resident" "refers to a man's abode in a particular place or country which he has adopted voluntarily and for settled purposes as part of the regular order of his life for the time being, whether of short or of long duration." The majority noted that such a test was not readily applicable to a child, for it shifted focus from the child's actual situation to the intentions of the parents.

The majority further affirmed that the English courts had been tempted to overlay the factual concept of habitual residence with legal constructs. The most important being the "rule" that where two parents have parental responsibility for a child, one could not change the child's habitual residence unilaterally. Whilst the Supreme Court did not have to decide this issue, the majority noted that this rule had not been universally adopted and would not inevitably be a charter for abduction.

The majority held that once such concepts were adopted, it became tempting to construct another "rule", namely that a child's habitual residence was necessarily that of his primary carer or carers. It may then seem a small step to apply this principle, as in the present case, to a situation in which the child has never even been present, let alone lived, in the country where his primary carer is habitually resident.

The majority noted that a person could be habitually resident somewhere where he was not actually present at the relevant time. It accepted that since the mother in the instant case remained habitually resident in England during her enforced absence in Pakistan, it could appear artificial to construct a rule that physical presence at some time, however fleeting, was an essential pre-requisite of habitual residence. However, the majority also noted that a person could have no habitual residence.

The majority considered the leading House of Lords judgment in Re J (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 A.C. 562 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. In the latter case Lord Brandon held that whilst a person could cease to be habitually resident in one country in a single day if he left it with a settled intention not to return, a person could not become habitually resident in a different country in a single day.

Rather, an appreciable period of time and a settled intention would be necessary to become habitually resident. The Supreme Court as a whole held that these comments were best seen as helpful generalisations of fact, which would usually but not invariably be true, and not as propositions of law.

For the majority, Lady Hale stated that she would not accept that it was impossible to become habitually resident in a single day, rather it would depend upon the circumstances. The majority did accept that a person may cease to be habitually resident in one country without having yet become habitually resident in another.

In the light of its review of habitual residence, the majority then made eight points, which were also accepted by Lord Hughes:

  • "[H] Habitual residence is a question of fact and not a legal concept such as domicile. There is no legal rule akin to that whereby a child automatically takes the domicile of his parents."
  • Habitual residence for the purpose of the Brussels IIa Regulation must be interpreted consistently with the concept in the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention and the Family Law Act 1986.
  • The test adopted by the European Court is "the place which reflects some degree of integration by the child in a social and family environment" in the country concerned.
  • "It is now unlikely that the latter test would produce any different results from that hitherto adopted in the English courts under the 1986 Act and the Hague Child Abduction Convention."
  • "[T]he test adopted by the European Court is preferable to that earlier adopted by the English courts, being focussed on the situation of the child, with the purposes and intentions of the parents being merely one of the relevant factors. The test derived from R v Barnet London Borough Council, ex p Shah should be abandoned when deciding the habitual residence of a child."
  • "The social and family environment of an infant or young child is shared with those (whether parents or others) upon whom [the child] is dependent. Hence it is necessary to assess the integration of that person or persons in the social and family environment of the country concerned."
  • "The essentially factual and individual nature of the inquiry into habitual residence should not be glossed with legal concepts which would produce a different result from that which the factual inquiry would produce."
  • "[I]t is possible that a child may have no country of habitual residence at a particular point in time."
Application to the Facts of the Case:
The majority then considered the approach which would accord most closely with the factual situation of the child subject of the appeal. Lady Hale asked whether this was an approach which held that presence was a necessary pre-cursor to residence and thus to habitual residence, or, an approach which focussed on the relationship between the child and his primary carer?

The majority favoured the former approach, which meant that the child concerned could not be considered to be habitually resident in England and Wales. The majority noted, inter alia, that whilst a child's integration in the place where he was at present, depended upon the degree of integration of his primary carer, it was another thing to say that a child could be integrated in a place to which his primary carer had never taken him.

Notwithstanding this finding, the majority accepted that the issue was not acte claire for the purpose of European Union law. Consequently, had the child's habitual residence been determinative as regards the appeal, then a preliminary ruling would have been sought from the CJEU.

The child's habitual residence was ultimately not determinative because of the Supreme Court's ruling that nationality existed as a residual ground of jurisdiction, and that the trial judge therefore had to determine whether this residual ground could be relied upon in the instant case.

Dissenting Opinion:
Lord Hughes concurred with the majority as to the order to be made to dispose of the appeal, but he dissented on the issue of whether the child could be considered to be habitually resident in England and Wales. He started by reflecting on the proposition in English law that where two parents had parental responsibility for a child, one of them could not by unilateral action alter the habitual residence of the child. He noted that this "rule" was of particular importance in cases of retention, where a child had been permitted to spend time in a State other than the State of habitual residence.

Preventing unilateral changes of habitual residence in such instances ensured that the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention was not rendered ineffective. However, Lord Hughes noted that Art. 10 of the Brussels IIa Regulation contemplated that a child's habitual residence may shift at some stage after a wrongful removal or retention.

Whilst the issue did not have to be resolved in the present appeal, he suggested that it might be dealt with through finding that unilateral acts designed to make permanent a child's stay in another State were properly to be regarded as acts of wrongful retention, notwithstanding that the scheduled end of the child's visit had not yet arrived. He submitted that this approach was wholly consistent with CJEU case law on the habitual residence of children.

Turning to the facts of the case, Lord Hughes agreed that the child did not "derive" his habitual residence from the mother as a matter of law. But he held that the majority in the Court of Appeal had been wrong to attribute the mother's argument to a contention for dependent habitual residence. He held that even in the absence of a rule of dependency, it did not follow that England was not the youngest child's habitual residence.

Lord Hughes submitted that the position of the majority in the Court of Appeal amounted to a rule of law "at least to the extent that it propounds a general proposition that factual habitual residence cannot be achieved without physical presence at some time." Having referred to CJEU case law, he stated that the determination of habitual residence required a factual enquiry into the integration of the family unit to which the child belonged, Lord Hughes then submitted that this may yield the conclusion that the child shares the habitual residence of that unit, even if he has not yet achieved physical presence there, especially if he is being prevented by coercion or other force majeure from doing so.

Lord Hughes concluded by noting that there would be a serious failure of the protection afforded by the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention if a newly born child in such a situation were held to have no habitual residence and thus to be incapable of wrongful removal or retention.

Removal & Retention - Arts 3 and 12
Anticipatory Breach of Rights of Custody:
Lord Hughes, in his assessment of the "rule" which had emerged in English case law whereby one parent could not unilaterally change the habitual residence of his child, noted that this was of particular relevance to cases of wrongful retention. Instead of having to rely on such a rule, he suggested that the correct approach might be to find that unilateral acts designed to make permanent a child's stay in another State were regarded as acts of wrongful retention, notwithstanding that the scheduled end of the child's visit had not yet arrived. On the facts of the case, Lord Hughes argued that the child having been born with an English habitual residence, his wrongful retention occurred immediately afterwards.

Removal and Retention - Arts 3 and 12

-

Jurisdiction Issues - Art. 16


Basis of Jurisdiction for the Orders Sought:
The Supreme Court noted that the present proceedings began on 20 June 2011, when on a without notice application, the Family Division of the High Court made all four children wards of court and, inter alia, ordered that they be returned forthwith to England and Wales by the father.

The Supreme Court affirmed that on the latter date jurisdiction in cases concerning children was governed by two pieces of legislation, the Family Law Act 1986 and the Brussels IIa Regulation (regard must now also be paid to the 1996 Hague Child Protection Convention). It held that the order made on 20 June 2011 (which was subsequently repeated) did not fall within s. 1 of the Family Law Act 1986 and was not therefore subject to the jurisdictional prohibitions in s. 2 of the latter Act. Rather the orders fell within the scope of the Brussels IIa Regulation (Art. 2).

Geographical Scope of the Brussels IIa Regulation:
The Supreme Court held that the jurisdiction provisions of the Regulation applied regardless of whether there was an alternative jurisdiction in a non-Member State.

Forum Non Conveniens and Brussels IIa Regulation:
The Supreme Court declined to express a view as to whether the reasoning of the European Court in Owusu v Jackson (t/a Villa Holidays Bal Inn Villas) (C-281/02) [2005] Q.B. 801 [2005] E.C.R. I-1383, as regards the obligatory exercise of jurisdiction under Art. 2 of the Brussels I jurisdiction regime, should be extended to children's cases under the Brussels IIa Regulation. It noted that a preliminary ruling reference to the CJEU might be required to settle the matter.

Nationality as a Residual Ground of Jurisdiction:
The Court noted that no other Member State was involved in the case, therefore, either the courts of England and Wales had jurisdiction under Art. 8 of the Brussels IIa Regulation, or no court of a Member State did. That being so, Art. 14 of the Brussels IIa Regulation (Residual Jurisdiction) applied and the jurisdiction of England and Wales was to be determined by the laws of England and Wales.

The Court held that as the common law rules as to the inherent jurisdiction of the High Court continued to apply, there was no doubt that this jurisdiction could be exercised if a child was a British national. The majority reviewed recent case law which provided that there should be "extreme circumspection" in deciding to exercise such jurisdiction. The majority noted that there were policy reasons against the exercise of the nationality jurisdiction, but exercise must ultimately depend on the facts of the case.

In this the majority listed a number of relevant factors, including the coercion to which the mother was subject. As the trial judge had not addressed this basis of jurisdiction, the matter had to be remitted to her to do so. Were she not to exercise jurisdiction over the child on the basis of his nationality, then a preliminary ruling would have to be sought from the CJEU as regards the child's habitual residence.

Non-Convention Issues

See above as regards issues of jurisdiction.

Brussels IIa Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003)

See above as regards the interpretation of habitual residence.

Author of the summary: Peter McEleavy

INCADAT comment

The Court of Appeal judgment A v A (Children) (Habitual Residence) [2012] EWCA Civ 1396 [2013] Fam. 232 can be found at [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 1192]. See also the decision Re H (Children) (Jurisdiction: Habitual Residence) [2014] EWCA Civ 1101 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 1287].

Anticipated Non-Return

Courts have taken different views with regard to whether it is possible to have an 'anticipated non-return', i.e. whether it is possible for a lawful period of retention to become wrongful prior to the scheduled return date.

This possibility was implicitly accepted in:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re S. (Minors) (Child Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam 70 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 117];

New Zealand
P. v. The Secretary for Justice [2003] NZLR 54, [2003] NZFLR 673 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 575] (overturned on appeal - see below).

A greater number of courts have though refused to find a retention to be wrongful in advance of the scheduled return date:

China (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
B.L.W. v. B.W.L. [2007] 2 HKLRD 193, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 975];

France
Cass Civ 1ère 19/03/2002 (Arrêt n° 516 FS-P, pourvoi n° 00-17692), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 512];

New Zealand
P. v. Secretary for Justice [2004] 2 NZLR 28 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 583];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Watson v. Jamieson 1998 SLT 180 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 75];

United States of America
Toren v. Toren, 191 F.3d 23 (1st Cir 1999) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 584].

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Can a Child be left without a Habitual Residence?

In early Convention case law there was a clear reluctance on the part of appellate courts to find that a child did not have a habitual residence.  This was because of the concern that such a conclusion would render the instrument inoperable, see:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re F. (A Minor) (Child Abduction) [1992] 1 FLR 548 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 40];

Australia
Cooper v. Casey (1995) FLC 92-575 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 104].

However, in more recent years there has been a recognition that situations do exist where it is not possible to regard a child as being habitually resident anywhere:

Australia
D.W. & Director-General, Department of Child Safety [2006] FamCA 93, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 870].

In this case the majority accepted that their decision could be said to deny the child of the benefit of the Convention. However, the majority argued that the interests of children generally could be adversely affected if courts were too willing to find that a parent who had attempted a reconciliation in a foreign country, was to be found, together with the child, to have become "habitually resident" in that foreign country.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
W. and B. v. H. (Child Abduction: Surrogacy) [2002] 1 FLR 1008 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 470];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Robertson v. Robertson 1998 SLT 468 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 194];

D. v. D. 2002 SC 33 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 351];

New Zealand
S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 816];

United States of America
Delvoye v. Lee, 329 F.3d 330 (3rd Cir. 2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 529];

Ferraris v. Alexander, 125 Cal. App. 4th 1417 (2005) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/US 797].

Policy Issues

When a parent seeks the return of a child outside the scope of the Hague Convention, or another international or regional instrument, the court seised will have to decide how to balance the interests of the child with the general international policy of combating the illicit transfer and non-return of children abroad (Art. 11(1) UNCRC 1990).

Canada
Shortridge-Tsuchiya v. Tsuchiya, 2009 BCSC 541, [2009] B.C.W.L.D. 4138, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 1109].

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Appellate courts have struggled to agree on the appropriate balance to be struck.

An internationalist interpretation, favouring an approach mirrored on that of Hague Convention, was adopted by the Court of Appeal in:

Re E. (Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1999] 2 FLR 642 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 589];

Re J. (Child Returned Abroad: Human Rights) [2004] EWCA Civ. 417, [2004] 2 FLR 85 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 586].

However, in the earlier case Re J.A. (Child Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1998] 1 FLR 231 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 588] a return order was not made, there being concerns as to whether the legal system in the foreign jurisdiction would be able to act in the best interests of the child. A factor in that case was that the abducting mother, who was British, would not be entitled to relocate from the child's State of habitual residence unless she had the consent of the father.

In Re J. (A Child) (Return to Foreign Jurisdiction: Convention Rights), [2005] UKHL 40, [2006] 1 AC 80, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 801] the House of Lords expressly stated that the approach of the Court of Appeal in Re J.A. (Child Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1998] 1 FLR 231 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 588] was the one to be preferred.

The House of Lords held that the rationale of the Hague Convention necessarily meant that the State of refuge might on occasion have to do something which was not in the best interests of the individual child involved. States parties had accepted this disadvantage to some individual children for the sake of the greater advantage to children in general.  However, there was no warrant, either in statute or authority, for the principles of the Hague Convention to be extended to countries which were not parties to it. In a non-Convention case the court must act in accordance with the welfare of the individual child. Whilst there was no ‘strong presumption' in favour of return on the facts of an individual case a summary return may very well be in the best interests of the individual child.

It may be noted that in Re F. (Children) (Abduction: Removal Outside Jurisdiction) [2008] EWCA Civ. 854, [2008] 2 F.L.R. 1649 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 982] a trial judge who felt compelled to discharge his original order for return in the light, inter alia, of the ruling in Re M. had his judgment overturned. The Court of Appeal did not, however, comment on the ruling of the House of Lords and the case ostensibly turned on the existence of new evidence, pointing to the inevitability of the mother's deportation.

In E.M. (Lebanon) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] UKHL 64, [2009] 1 A.C. 1198 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 994] an immigration case centred around the wrongful removal of a child from a non-Convention country, the House of Lords ruled that a return would lead to a violation of the child's and his mother's right to family life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). However, it must be noted that on the facts the child's only ‘family life' was with the mother, the father having had no contact with the child since the day of his birth. A majority of the panel (4:1) held that the discriminatory nature of Lebanese family law, which would have led to the automatic transfer of care for the child being passed from mother to father, upon the child reaching his 7th birthday, would not have led to a breach of the ECHR.