CASE

No full text available

Case Name

ZA v NA [2012] EWCA Civ 1396, [2012] 3 F.C.R. 421

INCADAT reference

HC/E/PK 1192

Court

Country

UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES

Name

Court of Appeal (Civil Division)

Level

Appellate Court

Judge(s)
Thorpe, Rimer and Patten, L.J.J.

States involved

Requesting State

UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES

Requested State

PAKISTAN

Decision

Date

26 October 2012

Status

Final

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3 | Non-Convention Issues

Order

-

HC article(s) Considered

-

HC article(s) Relied Upon

-

Other provisions
Wardship Jurisdiction; Art. 8 Brussels IIa Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003); UK-Pakistan Judicial Protocol on Children Matters 2003
Authorities | Cases referred to
Mercredi v Chaffe (C-497/10 PPU) [2012] Fam. 22; I (A Child) (Contact Application: Jurisdiction), Re [2009] UKSC 10, [2010] 1 A.C. 319; Proceedings Brought by A (C-523/07) [2010] Fam. 42, [2009] E.C.R. I-2805; W v H (Child Abduction: Surrogacy) (No.1) [2002] 1 F.L.R. 1008; B v H (Habitual Residence: Wardship) [2002] 1 F.L.R. 388; Al-H (Rashid) v F (Sara) [2001] EWCA Civ 186, [2001] 1 F.L.R. 951; Nessa v Chief Adjudication Officer [1999] 1 W.L.R. 1937; M (A Minor) (Abduction: Habitual Residence), Re [1996] 1 F.L.R. 887; S (Minors) (Convention on Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction: Wrongful Retention), Re [1994] Fam. 70; M (Minors) (Residence Order: Jurisdiction), Re [1993] 1 F.L.R. 495; J (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights), Re [1990] 2 A.C. 562.

INCADAT comment

Aims & Scope of the Convention

Habitual Residence
Habitual Residence

Inter-Relationship with International / Regional Instruments and National Law

Non-Convention Child Abduction Cases under National Law
Policy Issues

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | ES

Facts

The proceedings related to 4 children, born in 2001, 2002, 2005 and 2010. The parents had entered into an arranged marriage in Pakistan in 1999 and the mother came to the United Kingdom in 2000 where the first three children were born. After the birth of the third child, the parents' marriage ran into difficulties, and between 2006 and 2008 they lived apart. Following a domestic incident the father was arrested, but the mother subsequently dropped charges.

On 13 October 2009 the mother took the three children to Pakistan for a 3 week vacation. She was pressurized by maternal and paternal families to reconcile with the father. She agreed to reconcile on the basis that the family would return to England. The mother's presence in Pakistan thereafter became involuntary. The children were entered into local schools against her wishes and the father removed her passport and the children's passports.

The mother then became pregnant. She was repeatedly beaten, threatened and abused by the husband and his family. She was not allowed out of her accommodation unaccompanied.

Following the birth of the child, the maternal grandfather commenced proceedings to secure the mother's release. On 15 May 2011 the mother was able to visit the maternal grandfather. She then recovered her passport and on 17 May she returned to England (without the children). On 24 May the father issued custody proceedings in Pakistan. These were not served on the mother.

The mother obtained an order from the High Court for the immediate return of the children. The order was made in wardship, on the basis that all the children were habitually resident in England and Wales. The mother issued an application for an injunction to freeze the father's assets in the jurisdiction. This was granted on 31 October 2011. She subsequently sought enforcement through sequestration proceedings.

On 20 February 2012 the High Court (Parker J.) re-affirmed the order for the return of the children and advanced enforcement against the assets of the father's family within the jurisdiction. The father appealed.

Ruling

Appeal allowed in part; the Court of Appeal held by a majority that the youngest sibling was not habitually resident in England and Wales. The Court unanimously upheld the finding that the three older siblings had retained their habitual residence in England and Wales after being retained in Pakistan.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3


It was argued for the father that Parker J had been wrong in law to hold that the youngest child was habitually resident in England and Wales, since he had been conceived and born in Pakistan and had spent the first two years of his life there. Rimer and Patten, L.JJ. accepted this submission and ruled that the authority which the trial judge had followed (B v. H (Habitual Residence: Wardship) [2002] 1 F.L.R. 388) had been wrongly decided. Thorpe L.J. delivered a dissenting judgment.

Patten L.J. considered first the situation of the three older child siblings who had been born and lived in England. He noted that in the light of English authorities, it was "well established that the habitual residence of […] children [could] not be changed by the unilateral action of one parent which was not consented to or acquiesced in by the other". He held that "the forced retention of the children in Pakistan [could] not therefore found the basis of a claim that by passage of time and their inevitable involvement in family life and education in Pakistan the older children [had] ceased to be habitually resident in England".

He further held that a different conclusion would not be reached were the authorities of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) to be applied. In particular, he noted that the integration of the children into a social and family life in Pakistan had to be considered and assessed in the light of their retention there.

Turning to the situation of the youngest child, Patten L.J. held that it was "clearly artificial as a matter of ordinary language to say that a child is habitually resident at birth in a country to which it has never been". He accepted that residence denoted and involved a physical presence. He added that "where [parents had] established a habitual residence in a particular country, it [would] usually require no more than a moment's presence in that jurisdiction for a newly born child to acquire the same status".

He contrasted the situation of a new born with that of an adult or child who relocated from one jurisdiction to another, for in such situations an appreciable period of time may have to pass before the "process of transition to a new place of habitual residence is complete".

Patten L.J. noted that a rule could be created whereby a new born child would be presumed to take, on birth, the habitual residence of his parents or custodial parent. But, he explained that whilst there was obvious pressure to create such a rule, it would be a "legal construct, divorced from actual fact", and should be resisted for it would create as many problems as it might solve.

Thorpe L.J. held that "whilst as a general rule, habitual residence [was] dependent upon the physical presence of the individual within the jurisdiction, although that presence may be intermittent,", he did not accept that a person who had never been present within a jurisdiction could not be habitually resident there.

He stated that the case of B v. H (Habitual Residence: Wardship) [2002] 1 F.L.R. 388 had been rightly decided, though he added that its scope should not be extended and that it would only be in exceptional cases where jurisdiction would be established. He further stated that "the defeat of abduction must be supported, particularly in those cases where there is not a Convention remedy".
 
EU Interpretation of Habitual Residence:
It was further submitted for the father that the trial judge should have applied not the English concept of habitual residence, but the European concept as established in the CJEU judgments: Re A (C-523/07) [2010] Fam. 42, [2009] E.C.R. I-2805 and Mercredi v. Chaffe (C-497/10 PPU) [2012] Fam. 22.

Patten L.J. held that it was unnecessary to consider whether the trial judge ought to have applied the European authorities unless they would have produced a materially different outcome in the proceedings. In this he found that a rule whereby a new born child was presumed to take the habitual residence of its parents or custodial parent would clearly be inconsistent with the approach set out in Mercredi v. Chaffe which contemplated a detailed examination of whether a child's presence in a particular jurisdiction involved a sufficient engagement with a settled family life in that place as to amount to habitual residence.

Rimer L.J., having also concluded that the youngest child was not habitually resident in England and Wales, affirmed: "The guidance as to 'habitual residence' in the decisions of the Court of Justice to which Patten LJ refers, if applicable to the present case, neither requires nor justifies a different conclusion."

Thorpe LJ stated that he did not accept the submission that the concept of habitual residence according to the autonomous law of the European Union could be distinguished from the concept of habitual residence applied English courts. In particular he did not accept that the ruling in Mercredi v. Chaffe indicated that habitual residence was impossible without physical presence.

Non-Convention Issues

UK-Pakistan Judicial Protocol on Children Matters:
The Court rejected the submission that the trial judge should have ceded jurisdiction to the Pakistan Court on the grounds that it was already seized of the father's custody application. The Court directed that further written submissions be made on the issue of forum non conveniens.

Author of the Summary: Peter McEleavy

INCADAT comment

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Policy Issues

When a parent seeks the return of a child outside the scope of the Hague Convention, or another international or regional instrument, the court seised will have to decide how to balance the interests of the child with the general international policy of combating the illicit transfer and non-return of children abroad (Art. 11(1) UNCRC 1990).

Canada
Shortridge-Tsuchiya v. Tsuchiya, 2009 BCSC 541, [2009] B.C.W.L.D. 4138, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 1109].

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Appellate courts have struggled to agree on the appropriate balance to be struck.

An internationalist interpretation, favouring an approach mirrored on that of Hague Convention, was adopted by the Court of Appeal in:

Re E. (Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1999] 2 FLR 642 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 589];

Re J. (Child Returned Abroad: Human Rights) [2004] EWCA Civ. 417, [2004] 2 FLR 85 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 586].

However, in the earlier case Re J.A. (Child Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1998] 1 FLR 231 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 588] a return order was not made, there being concerns as to whether the legal system in the foreign jurisdiction would be able to act in the best interests of the child. A factor in that case was that the abducting mother, who was British, would not be entitled to relocate from the child's State of habitual residence unless she had the consent of the father.

In Re J. (A Child) (Return to Foreign Jurisdiction: Convention Rights), [2005] UKHL 40, [2006] 1 AC 80, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 801] the House of Lords expressly stated that the approach of the Court of Appeal in Re J.A. (Child Abduction: Non-Convention Country) [1998] 1 FLR 231 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 588] was the one to be preferred.

The House of Lords held that the rationale of the Hague Convention necessarily meant that the State of refuge might on occasion have to do something which was not in the best interests of the individual child involved. States parties had accepted this disadvantage to some individual children for the sake of the greater advantage to children in general.  However, there was no warrant, either in statute or authority, for the principles of the Hague Convention to be extended to countries which were not parties to it. In a non-Convention case the court must act in accordance with the welfare of the individual child. Whilst there was no ‘strong presumption' in favour of return on the facts of an individual case a summary return may very well be in the best interests of the individual child.

It may be noted that in Re F. (Children) (Abduction: Removal Outside Jurisdiction) [2008] EWCA Civ. 854, [2008] 2 F.L.R. 1649 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 982] a trial judge who felt compelled to discharge his original order for return in the light, inter alia, of the ruling in Re M. had his judgment overturned. The Court of Appeal did not, however, comment on the ruling of the House of Lords and the case ostensibly turned on the existence of new evidence, pointing to the inevitability of the mother's deportation.

In E.M. (Lebanon) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] UKHL 64, [2009] 1 A.C. 1198 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 994] an immigration case centred around the wrongful removal of a child from a non-Convention country, the House of Lords ruled that a return would lead to a violation of the child's and his mother's right to family life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). However, it must be noted that on the facts the child's only ‘family life' was with the mother, the father having had no contact with the child since the day of his birth. A majority of the panel (4:1) held that the discriminatory nature of Lebanese family law, which would have led to the automatic transfer of care for the child being passed from mother to father, upon the child reaching his 7th birthday, would not have led to a breach of the ECHR.