HC/E/UKs 75
UNITED KINGDOM - SCOTLAND
Outer House of the Court of Session
First Instance
NEW ZEALAND
UNITED KINGDOM - SCOTLAND
12 June 1996
Final
Habitual Residence - Art. 3 | Rights of Custody - Art. 3
Application dismissed
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Where residence with two parents is divided equally it is unreal, in the absence of other differentiating factors, to see residence with one parent as primary and the stays with the other parent as interruptions. The girls had lost their habitual residence in New Zealand and had acquired a habitual residence in Scotland. There was a settled purpose that they would live in Scotland for a two year period notwithstanding that they would then return to New Zealand.
Breach of Custody Rights In an obiter statement the trial judge affirmed that to say one will act in breach of an agreement at a future date is not itself to commit that breach, or necessarily any breach. Consequently, even if the children had been habitually resident in New Zealand the court would have found the mother's application to have been premature, c.f. Re S. (Minors)(Child Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam 70 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 117].
Courts have taken different views with regard to whether it is possible to have an 'anticipated non-return', i.e. whether it is possible for a lawful period of retention to become wrongful prior to the scheduled return date.
This possibility was implicitly accepted in:
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re S. (Minors) (Child Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam 70 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 117];
New Zealand
P. v. The Secretary for Justice [2003] NZLR 54, [2003] NZFLR 673 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 575] (overturned on appeal - see below).
A greater number of courts have though refused to find a retention to be wrongful in advance of the scheduled return date:
China (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
B.L.W. v. B.W.L. [2007] 2 HKLRD 193, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 975];
France
Cass Civ 1ère 19/03/2002 (Arrêt n° 516 FS-P, pourvoi n° 00-17692), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 512];
New Zealand
P. v. Secretary for Justice [2004] 2 NZLR 28 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 583];
United Kingdom - Scotland
Watson v. Jamieson 1998 SLT 180 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 75];
United States of America
Toren v. Toren, 191 F.3d 23 (1st Cir 1999) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 584].
Convention case law reveals several examples of cases where parties or a court seek to pre-empt future litigation over the appropriate venue by fixing jurisdiction in the Contracting State currently seized of the action. In such cases it is usually envisaged that the child will move for an extended time to another State, often pursuant to a ‘shuttle custody arrangement,' before returning to the designated home State.
Experience has shown however that disputes will frequently arise as to where the child is habitually resident if he or she has spent an extended period out of the designated home State.
In cases where the child is not returned to the designated home State attempts to enforce a jurisdiction agreement in the other Contracting State have failed, see:
Sweden
A.F.J. v. T.J., Supreme Administrative Court (Regeringsrätten) RÅ 1996 ref 52, 9 May 1996 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/SE 80];
Canada
Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800].
However, in a case where a child was removed, with his willing participation, to the designated home State the order as to jurisdiction was upheld in the face of a subsequent return application, see:
Israel
Family case 107064/99 K.L v. N.D.S., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 835].
For an example of a case where the parents sought to enter a jurisdiction clause in a custody agreement yet not restrict any evolution in the children's habitual residence, see:
New Zealand
Winters v. Cowen [2002] NZFLR 927 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 473].
The interpretation given by the Regeringsratten (Sweden) in A.F.J. v. T.J., that a child's habitual residence will change notwithstanding a jurisdiction clause in a shuttle custody arrangement mirrors that adopted by:
the Court of Session in Scotland in Watson v. Jamieson 1998 SLT 180 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 75];
the New Zealand Court of Appeal in Punter v Secretary for Justice [2004] 2 NZLR 28 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 583], and,
the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (Canada) in Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800].
Reference should equally be made to the Report of the Third Special Commission Meeting to Review the Operation of the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction (17 - 21 March 1997) at para 16:
'Alternating custody agreements, or 'shuttle agreements' might give rise to problems in determining the habitual residence of the child. The question arises whether such agreements may determine habitual residence in a way that would be binding on courts requested to order the return of the child, eg by including an additional clause that non-return of the child on the date agreed upon constitutes unlawful retention under the Convention or other kinds of choice of court clauses. Such choice of court clauses do not fall to be recognised under the Convention, however, and parties to such an agreement should not have the power to create a habitual residence that does not match with the factual habitual residence of the child. This is, firstly, because the concept of 'habitual residence' under the Convention is regarded as a purely factual matter and, secondly, because the Convention provides for a very specific remedy applicable in cases of emergency and is not meant to solve parental disputes on the merits of custody rights.'
For academic commentary see:
Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' OUP, Oxford, 1999 at p.p. 99-101;
Schiratzki J. 'Friends at Odds - Construing Habitual Residence for Children in Sweden and the United States,' International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family (2001), 297 - 326;
Schuz R. ‘Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice' (2001) Child and Family Law Quarterly 1.