HC/E/AU 988
AUSTRALIA
High Court
Superior Appellate Court
NEW ZEALAND
AUSTRALIA
28 March 2008
Final
Rights of Custody - Art. 3 | Procedural Matters
Application dismissed
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The central issue in the case was whether the applicant father possessed rights of custody in respect of the child. He argued that he had on the basis that:
1. He had in his favour an access order dated 4 December 2000 made by the Family Court at Auckland which provided that the child be in his care every second weekend and in accordance with NZ law this was sufficient to accord him a right of veto over the removal of the child from the jurisdiction;
2. He was a guardian of the child, pursuant to s 17 of the Care of Children Act 2004 (NZ), by reason of the fact that he was living with the child's mother when the child was born;
3. Pursuant to the Care of Children Act he had the right to determine the child's place of residence.
The majority (Gummow, Heydon and Crennan JJ) with whom Gleeson CJ agreed, noted that the access order gave rise to rights in each parent with correlative duties or obligations in the other parent to observe the requirements of the order. Nevertheless, the order was not addressed to and imposed no prohibition on, in the absence of consent by both parents, the removal of the child from the jurisdiction.
In the absence of a "right of veto" there could be no consideration as to whether a custodial right was held by the father. Kirby J. dissented on this finding. He held that the father's exclusive rights of "care" during periods of contact impliedly gave him a right to veto the mother's unilateral alteration of the child's place of residence from New Zealand to Australia where the order could not be fulfilled.
Notwithstanding this finding the majority further noted that there were different interpretations in global jurisprudence as to whether a "right of veto" should indeed be considered to amount to a custodial right. The majority went no further than stating that in general terms such a power "may" give rise to a right of custody.
However, the justices questioned whether a right of veto found merely in an agreement between the parents could be so regarded. This was because such a right would at best be a potential one, dependent upon a successful application to the relevant judicial authorities for its enforcement by creating a bar to removal.
As to whether rights of custody might have been vested in a New Zealand court, the majority, with whom Gleeson CJ agreed, held that in principle in a Contracting State a court vested with a wardship jurisdiction may indeed hold such rights.
The majority further noted that the crucial issue was the engagement of the court's jurisdiction to deal with the custody of the child and the pendency of those proceedings. On this latter point reference was made to the judgment of the Supreme Court of Canada in Thomson v. Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 11].
On the facts however the majority held that there was no basis for such argument as under the Australian regulations, in contrast to other jurisdictions, an application had to be made by the holder of the custodial rights.
Furthermore the majority, with whom Gleeson CJ agreed, held that a breach of s. 80 of the Care of Children Act 2004 which provides for a criminal offence of removing children from New Zealand without leave of the court, did not confer a power of veto in any such competent New Zealand court. Kirby J. did not express a view on this point.
The final basis for the father to attempt to show that he held custodial rights was for him to establish that he was a joint guardian of the child pursuant to s. 17 of the Care of Children Act 2004. The only method for him to do so was to prove he had been living with the mother as a de facto partner at the time the child was born.
Reviewing the early judgments the majority criticised the manner in which the relevant evidence had been assessed. They agreed with the dissenting judge in the Full Court that the affidavit material was insufficient to found an inference that the parents had lived together as a couple in a relationship in the nature of marriage or civil union.
Consequently, the Central Authority had simply failed to establish its case that the father was a guardian of the child and could thus determine the child's place of residence.
Gleeson CJ and Kirby J independently dissented on this final point. They concurred with the majority in the Full Court that the evidence, albeit unsatisfactory, sufficed to establish that the couple had been living together in a de facto relationship, which led to the father having custody rights.
The majority noted that Article 11 of the Convention, and the corresponding Regulation in Australian law, required child abduction cases to be dealt with expeditiously and that this had led to a certain procedural streamlining of such applications. However, they cautioned against the "inadequate, albeit prompt, disposition of return applications", rather a "thorough examination on adequate evidence of the issues" was required.
Kirby J. in his dissenting judgment argued however that if Convention proceedings were to typically, or even regularly, to expand into fully fledged contests amounting to contested custody suits then this would defeat the objects of the instrument and reward abductors by placing serious burdens on applicant parents.
The locus of decision making would effectively be shifted to the State of refuge. He noted that the Australian regulations envisaged expeditious proceedings which would be based on economical evidence.
Courts in an overwhelming majority of Contracting States have accepted that a right of veto over the removal of the child from the jurisdiction amounts to a right of custody for Convention purposes, see:
Australia
In the Marriage of Resina [1991] FamCA 33, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 257];
State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];
Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care and Hobbs, 24 September 1999, Family Court of Australia (Brisbane) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 294];
Austria
2 Ob 596/91, OGH, 05 February 1992, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 375];
Canada
Thomson v. Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 11].
The Supreme Court did draw a distinction between a non-removal clause in an interim custody order and in a final order. It suggested that were a non-removal clause in a final custody order to be regarded as a custody right for Convention purposes, that could have serious implications for the mobility rights of the primary carer.
Thorne v. Dryden-Hall, (1997) 28 RFL (4th) 297 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 12];
Decision of 15 December 1998, [1999] R.J.Q. 248 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 334];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
C. v. C. (Minor: Abduction: Rights of Custody Abroad) [1989] 1 WLR 654, [1989] 2 All ER 465, [1989] 1 FLR 403, [1989] Fam Law 228 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 34];
Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Foreign Custody Rights) [2006] UKHL 51, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880];
France
Ministère Public c. M.B. 79 Rev. crit. 1990, 529, note Y. Lequette [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 62];
Germany
2 BvR 1126/97, Bundesverfassungsgericht, (Federal Constitutional Court), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 338];
10 UF 753/01, Oberlandesgericht Dresden, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 486];
United Kingdom - Scotland
Bordera v. Bordera 1995 SLT 1176 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 183];
A.J. v. F.J. [2005] CSIH 36, 2005 1 SC 428 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 803];
South Africa
Sonderup v. Tondelli 2001 (1) SA 1171 (CC), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 309];
Switzerland
5P.1/1999, Tribunal fédéral suisse, (Swiss Supreme Court), 29 March 1999, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 427].
United States of America
In the United States, the Federal Courts of Appeals were divided on the appropriate interpretation to give between 2000 and 2010.
A majority followed the 2nd Circuit in adopting a narrow interpretation, see:
Croll v. Croll, 229 F.3d 133 (2d Cir., 2000; cert. den. Oct. 9, 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 313];
Gonzalez v. Gutierrez, 311 F.3d 942 (9th Cir 2002) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 493];
Fawcett v. McRoberts, 326 F.3d 491, 500 (4th Cir. 2003), cert. denied 157 L. Ed. 2d 732, 124 S. Ct. 805 (2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 494];
Abbott v. Abbott, 542 F.3d 1081 (5th Cir. 2008), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 989].
The 11th Circuit however endorsed the standard international interpretation.
Furnes v. Reeves, 362 F.3d 702 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 578].
The matter was settled, at least where an applicant parent has a right to decide the child's country of residence, or the court in the State of habitual residence is seeking to protect its own jurisdiction pending further decrees, by the US Supreme Court endorsing the standard international interpretation.
Abbott v. Abbott, 130 S. Ct. 1983 (2010), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 1029].
The standard international interpretation has equally been accepted by the European Court of Human Rights, see:
Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No. 41615/07, 8 January 2009 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1001].
Confirmed by the Grand Chamber: Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No 41615/07, 6 July 2010 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1323].
Right to Object to a Removal
Where an individual does not have a right of veto over the removal of a child from the jurisdiction, but merely a right to object and to apply to a court to prevent such a removal, it has been held in several jurisdictions that this is not enough to amount to a custody right for Convention purposes:
Canada
W.(V.) v. S.(D.), 134 DLR 4th 481 (1996), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA17];
Ireland
W.P.P. v. S.R.W. [2001] ILRM 371, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 271];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re V.-B. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1999] 2 FLR 192, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 261];
S. v. H. (Abduction: Access Rights) [1998] Fam 49 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 36];
United Kingdom - Scotland
Pirrie v. Sawacki 1997 SLT 1160, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 188].
This interpretation has also been upheld by the Court of Justice of the European Union:
Case C-400/10 PPU J. McB. v. L.E., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].
The European Court held that to find otherwise would be incompatible with the requirements of legal certainty and with the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others, notably those of the sole custodian.
For academic commentary see:
P. Beaumont & P. McEleavy The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, Oxford, OUP, 1999, p. 75 et seq.;
M. Bailey The Right of a Non-Custodial Parent to an Order for Return of a Child Under the Hague Convention; Canadian Journal of Family Law, 1996, p. 287;
C. Whitman 'Croll v Croll: The Second Circuit Limits 'Custody Rights' Under the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction' 2001 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 605.
A very wide interpretation has been given to rights of custody for the purposes of the Convention by the New Zealand courts. Notably, a right of intermittent possession and care of a child has been regarded as amounting to a right of custody as well as being an access right. It has been held that there is no convincing reason for postulating a sharp dichotomy between the concepts of custody and access.
Gross v. Boda [1995] 1 NZLR 569 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 66];
Dellabarca v. Christie [1999] 2 NZLR 548 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 295];
Anderson v. Paterson [2002] NZFLR 641 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 471].
This interpretation has been expressly rejected elsewhere, see for example:
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Hunter v. Murrow [2005] EWCA Civ 976, [2005] 2 F.L.R. 1119 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe @809@].
Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.