HC/E/UKe 1016
UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES
High Court (Family Division)
First Instance
LITHUANIA
UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES
26 June 2009
Final
Removal and Retention - Arts 3 and 12 | Grave Risk - Art. 13(1)(b) | Settlement of the Child - Art. 12(2) | Procedural Matters
Return refused
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The trial judge considered the issue of settlement should she have been wrong in her assessment of the uncommunicated intention of wrongful retention on the part of the mother. This evaluation was however merged with a consideration of the Article 13(1)(b) exception.
Reviewing earlier case law the trial judge held that the English interpretation of settlement which had previously been considered to be restrictive had been relaxed following the decision of the House of Lords in Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 937].
Nevertheless, the relaxation was not to the extent to permit a court simply to reflect upon physical location and the passage of time. The judge approached the issue by looking at the child's degree of integration into his physical and social environment, entirely independent of his dependence upon and attachment to the mother as his primary carer. The court appointed expert found that the child was integrated so completely within his new life in time, location and physical and social environment that he could only be described as "settled".
Proceedings were delayed from January 2008 until April 2009 due to issues of funding, the seeking of an expert report on the father's rights of custody and non-attendance by the father due to ill health. As a result of the father's unexplained non-attendance on 6 April, the mother applied to strike out his application for return. This was refused and an adjournment was granted, with both parties required to attend. Prior to the rescheduled date for the trial, the father advised that he would not attend.
The trial judge declined to follow Re G. (Abduction: Striking Out Application) [1995] 2 FLR 410 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 170] in which a left behind parent who had filed a return petition but then waited 10 months before taking any further steps had the application struck out as an abuse of process.
She noted that the father in the present case had sought directions for 8 months and he was not solely responsible for the delay. The trial judge considered that it was open to her to make a return order but to suspend its application to allow for conditions to be met. However, she declined to do so, accepting that such an option could undermine the spirit of the Convention and so should only be considered in exceptional cases.
The effect of the non-return order made on the basis of Article 13(1)(b) in this intra-EU case was to trigger the application of Articles 11(6) & (7) of the Brussels II a Regulation. The relevant authorities in Lithuania retained jurisdiction over the substantive issue of custody (Art 10) and would be notified of the decision.
Nevertheless, the trial judge invited the Lithuanian court to stay the case in relation to the child's residence and contact and invite the English court to assume jurisdiction of the same pursuant to Article 15 of the Brussels II a Regulation; it being the court better placed to conduct any further welfare investigations into the child's present circumstances.
Preparation of INCADAT case law analysis in progress.
The drafting of Article 13 makes clear that where one of the constituent exceptions is established to the standard required by the Convention, the making of a non-return order is not inevitable, rather the court seised of the return petition has a discretion whether or not to make a non-return order.
The most extensive recent overview of the exercise of the discretion to return in child abduction cases has come in the decision of the supreme United Kingdom jurisdiction, the House of Lords, in Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937].
In that case Baroness Hale affirmed that it would be wrong to import any test of exceptionality into the exercise of discretion under the Hague Convention. The circumstances in which a return might be refused were themselves exceptions to the general rule. It was neither necessary nor desirable to import an additional gloss into the Convention.
The manner in which the discretion would be exercised would differ depending on the facts of the case; general policy considerations, including not only the swift return of abducted children, but also comity between Contracting States, mutual respect for judicial processes and deterrence of abductions, had to be weighed against the interests of the child in the individual case. A court would be entitled to take into account the various aspects of the Convention policy, alongside the circumstances which gave the court a discretion in the first place and the wider considerations of the child's rights and welfare. Sometimes Convention objectives would be given more weight than the other considerations and sometimes they would not.
The discretionary nature of the exceptions is seen most commonly within the context of Article 13(2) - objections of a mature child - but there are equally examples of return orders being granted notwithstanding other exceptions being established.
Consent
Australia
Kilah & Director-General, Department of Community Services [2008] FamCAFC 81 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 995];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re D. (Abduction: Discretionary Return) [2000] 1 FLR 24 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 267].
Acquiescence
New Zealand
U. v. D. [2002] NZFLR 529 [INCADAT Cite: HC/E/NZ @472@].
Grave Risk
New Zealand
McL. v. McL., 12/04/2001, transcript, Family Court at Christchurch (New Zealand) [INCADAT Cite: HC/E/NZ @538@].
It may be noted that in the English appeal Re D. (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2006] UKHL 51; [2007] 1 AC 619 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ UKe @880@] Baroness Hale held that it was inconceivable that a child might be returned where a grave risk of harm was found to exist.
The English Court of Appeal has taken a very strict approach to Article 13 (1) b) and it is rare indeed for the exception to be upheld. Examples of where the standard has been reached include:
Re F. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights Abroad) [1995] Fam 224, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 8];
Re M. (Abduction: Psychological Harm) [1997] 2 FLR 690, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 86];
Re M. (Abduction: Leave to Appeal) [1999] 2 FLR 550, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 263];
Re D. (Article 13B: Non-return) [2006] EWCA Civ 146, [2006] 2 FLR 305, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 818];
Klentzeris v. Klentzeris [2007] EWCA Civ 533, [2007] 2 FLR 996 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 931].
A uniform interpretation has not emerged with regard to the concept of settlement; in particular whether it should be construed literally or rather in accordance with the policy objectives of the Convention. In jurisdictions favouring the latter approach the burden of proof on the abducting parent is clearly greater and the exception is more difficult to establish.
Jurisdictions in which a heavy burden of proof has been attached to the establishment of settlement include:
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re N. (Minors) (Abduction) [1991] 1 FLR 413 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 106]
In this case it was held that settlement is more than mere adjustment to surroundings. It involves a physical element of relating to, being established in, a community and an environment. It also has an emotional constituent denoting security and stability.
Cannon v. Cannon [2004] EWCA CIV 1330, [2005] 1 FLR 169 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 598]
For academic criticism of Re N. see:
Collins L. et al., Dicey, Morris & Collins on the Conflict of Laws, 14th Edition, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2006, paragraph 19-121.
However, it may be noted that a more recent development in England has been the adoption of a child-centric assessment of settlement by the House of Lords in Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937]. This ruling may impact on the previous case law.
However there was no apparent weakening of the standard in the non-Convention case Re F. (Children) (Abduction: Removal Outside Jurisdiction) [2008] EWCA Civ. 842, [2008] 2 F.L.R. 1649,[INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 982].
United Kingdom - Scotland
Soucie v. Soucie 1995 SC 134 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 107]
For Article 12(2) to be activated the interest of the child in not being uprooted must be so cogent that it outweighs the primary purpose of the Convention, namely the return of the child to the proper jurisdiction so that the child's future may be determined in the appropriate place.
P. v. S., 2002 FamLR 2 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 963]
A settled situation was one which could reasonably be relied upon to last as matters stood and did not contain indications that it was likely to change radically or to fall apart. There had therefore to be some projection into the future.
C. v. C. [2008] CSOH 42, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 962]
United States of America
In re Interest of Zarate, No. 96 C 50394 (N.D. Ill. Dec. 23, 1996) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 134]
A literal interpretation of the concept of settlement has been favoured in:
Australia
Director-General, Department of Community Services v. M. and C. and the Child Representative (1998) FLC 92-829 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 291];
China - (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
A.C. v. P.C. [2004] HKMP 1238 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 825].
The impact of the divergent interpretations is arguably most marked where very young children are concerned.
It has been held that settlement is to be considered from the perspective of a young child in:
Austria
7Ob573/90 Oberster Gerichtshof, 17/05/1990 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 378];
Australia
Secretary, Attorney-General's Department v. T.S. (2001) FLC 93-063 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 823];
State Central Authority v. C.R [2005] Fam CA 1050 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 824];
Israel
Family Application 000111/07 Ploni v. Almonit, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 938];
Monaco
R 6136; M. Le Procureur Général contre M. H. K., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/MC 510];
Switzerland
Präsidium des Bezirksgerichts St. Gallen (District Court of St. Gallen) (Switzerland), decision of 8 September 1998, 4 PZ 98-0217/0532N, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 431].
A child-centric approach has also been adopted in several significant appellate decisions with regard to older children, with emphasis placed on the children's views.
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937];
France
CA Paris 27 Octobre 2005, 05/15032, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 814];
Québec
Droit de la Famille 2785, Cour d'appel de Montréal, 5 December 1997, No 500-09-005532-973 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 653].
In contrast, a more objective assessment was favoured in the United States decision:
David S. v. Zamira S., 151 Misc. 2d 630, 574 N.Y.S.2d 429 (Fam. Ct. 1991) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USs 208]
The children, aged 3 and 1 1/2, had not established significant ties to their community in Brooklyn; they were not involved in school, extra-curricular, community, religious or social activities which children of an older age would be.
For the purposes of Art 12(1) the obligation on Contracting States to return children ‘forthwith' exists where less than 12 months has elapsed between the wrongful removal / retention and ‘the commencement of the proceedings before the judicial or administrative authority' in the Contracting State of refuge.
Courts in several Contracting States have considered the issue of the precise date of the commencement of such proceedings and have concluded that it is not enough for the purposes of Article 12(1) for the return application to have been filed with the relevant Central Authority in the State of refuge, rather civil return proceedings must have been initiated. In this it has been noted that the reference to administrative authorities in Art 12 refers to States where administrative tribunals have jurisdiction for return petitions.
Canada
V.B.M. v. D.L.J. [2004] N.J. No. 321; 2004 NLCA 56 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 592].
United States of America
Wojcik v. Wojcik, 959 F. Supp. 413 (E.D. Mich. 1997) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 105].
The issue has been accepted without argument in both England & Wales and Scotland:
Re M. (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1996] 1 FLR 315, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 21];
Perrin v. Perrin 1994 SC 45, 1995 SLT 81, 1993 SCLR 949, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 108].
Where children are concealed in the State of refuge courts are reluctant to make a finding of settlement, even if many years elapse before their discovery:
Canada (7 years elapsed)
J.E.A. v. C.L.M. (2002), 220 D.L.R. (4th) 577 (N.S.C.A.) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 754];
See however the decision of the Cour d'appel de Montréal in:
Droit de la Famille 2785, Cour d'appel de Montréal, 5 December 1997, No 500-09-005532-973 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 653].
United Kingdom - Scotland (2 ½ years elapsed)
C. v. C. [2008] CSOH 42, 2008 S.C.L.R. 329 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 962];
Switzerland (4 years elapsed)
Justice de Paix du cercle de Lausanne (Magistrates' Court), decision of 6 July 2000, J 765 CIEV 112E [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 434];
United States of America
(2 ½ years elapsed)
Lops v. Lops, 140 F. 3d 927 (11th Cir. 1998) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 125];
(3 years elapsed)
In re Coffield, 96 Ohio App. 3d 52, 644 N.E. 2d 662 (1994) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USs 138].
Non-return orders have been made where notwithstanding the concealment the children have still been able to lead open lives:
United Kingdom - England & Wales (4 years elapsed)
Re C. (Abduction: Settlement) (No 2) [2005] 1 FLR 938 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 815];
China - (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region) (4 ¾ years elapsed)
A.C. v. P.C. [2004] HKMP 1238 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 825].
In accordance with this principle the one year time limit in Article 12 is only deemed to commence from the date of the discovery of the children. The rationale being that otherwise an abducting parent who concealed children for more than a year would be rewarded for their misconduct by creating eligibility for an affirmative defence which was not otherwise available.
Furnes v. Reeves, 362 F.3d 702 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 578].
The principle of 'equitable tolling' in the context of the time limit specified in Article 12 has been rejected in other jurisdictions, see:
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Cannon v. Cannon [2004] EWCA CIV 1330, [2005] 1 FLR 169 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 598];
China - (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
A.C. v. P.C. [2004] HKMP 1238 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/HK 825];
New Zealand
H.J. v. Secretary for Justice [2006] NZFLR 1005 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 1127].
Unlike the Article 13 exceptions, Article 12(2) does not expressly afford courts a discretion to make a return order if settlement is established. Where this issue has arisen for consideration the majority judicial view has nevertheless been to apply the provision as if a discretion does exist, but this has arisen in different ways.
Australia
The matter has not been conclusively decided but there would appear to be appellate support for inferring a discretion, reference has been made to English and Scottish case law, see:
Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care v. Moore, (1999) FLC 92-841 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 276].
United Kingdom - England & Wales
English case law initially favoured inferring that a Convention based discretion existed by virtue of Article 18, see:
Re S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [1991] 2 FLR 1, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 163];
Cannon v. Cannon [2004] EWCA CIV 1330, [2005] 1 FLR 169 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 598].
However, this interpretation was expressly rejected in the House of Lords decision Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937]. A majority of the panel held that the construction of Article 12(2) left the matter open that there was an inherent discretion where settlement was established. It was pointed out that Article 18 did not confer any new power to order the return of a child under the Convention, rather it contemplated powers conferred by domestic law.
Ireland
In accepting the existence of a discretion reference was made to early English authority and Article 18.
P. v. B. (No. 2) (Child Abduction: Delay) [1999] 4 IR 185; [1999] 2 ILRM 401 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 391].
New Zealand
A discretion derives from the domestic legislation implementing the Convention, see:
Secretary for Justice (as the NZ Central Authority on behalf of T.J) v. H.J. [2006] NZSC 97, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 882].
United Kingdom - Scotland
Whilst the matter was not explored in any detail, settlement not being established, there was a suggestion that a discretion would exist, with reference being made to Article 18.
Soucie v. Soucie 1995 SC 134, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 107].
There have been a few decisions in which no discretion was found to attach to Article 12(2), these include:
Australia
State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232], - subsequently questioned;
State Central Authority v. C.R. [2005] Fam CA 1050 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 824];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re C. (Abduction: Settlement) [2004] EWHC 1245, [2005] 1 FLR 127, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 596] - subsequently overruled;
China - (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
A.C. v. P.C. [2004] HKMP 1238 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 825];
Canada (Québec)
Droit de la Famille 2785, Cour d'appel de Montréal, 5 décembre 1997, No 500-09-005532-973 , [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 653].
Article 18 not being included in the act implementing the Convention in Quebec, it is understood that courts do not possess a discretionary power where settlement is established.
For academic commentary on the use of discretion where settlement is established, see:
Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' OUP, Oxford, 1999 at p. 204 et seq.;
R. Schuz, ‘In Search of a Settled Interpretation of Article 12(2) of the Hague Child Abduction Convention' [2008] Child and Family Law Quarterly.
Whilst rare there have been examples of left behind parents initiating proceedings only then to not to continue, or of left behind parents succeeding in obtaining a return order only then not to take steps to secure enforcement. The response to situations is governed by the procedural rules of the Member State concerned.
Failure to Continue With Application
United Kingdom - England & Wales
A left behind parent who filed a return petition but then waited 10 months before taking any further steps had the application struck out as an abuse of process.
Re G. (Abduction: Striking Out Application) [1995] 2 FLR 410, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 170].
Failure to Seek Enforcement of a Return Order
Australia
The Family Law (Child Abduction Convention) Regulations 1986, Reg 19A provides:
(1) If a court makes a return order, the responsible Central Authority, the Article 3 applicant or a respondent to the proceeding may apply to the court, in accordance with Form 2D, for the discharge of the order.
(2) The court may make an order discharging a return order, or a part of a return order, only if it is satisfied that:
(a) all the parties consent to the return order being discharged; or
(b) since the return order was made, circumstances have arisen that make it impracticable for the order to be carried out; or
(c) exceptional circumstances exist that justify the return order being discharged; or
(d) the day on which the application for the discharge of the return order was made is more than 1 year after the return order was made or any appeal in relation to the return order was determined.
New Zealand
In B. v. Secretary for Justice, 26 February 2008 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 965] the High Court (Christchurch) held that there was no jurisdiction under New Zealand law to strike out a return order where the left behind parent had failed to act to secure its enforcement. The judge held that had such jurisdiction existed he would have struck out the return order, as an 8 month delay was extreme.
The ruling of the High Court was upheld by the Court of Appeal: Butler v. Craig [2008] NZCA 198.
The application of the 1980 Hague Convention within the Member States of the European Union (Denmark excepted) has been amended following the entry into force of Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and the matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) No 1347/2000, see:
Affaire C-195/08 PPU Rinau v. Rinau, [2008] ECR I 5271 [2008] 2 FLR 1495 [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 987];
Affaire C 403/09 PPU Detiček v. Sgueglia, [Référence INCADAT : HC/E/ 1327].
The Hague Convention remains the primary tool to combat child abductions within the European Union but its operation has been fine tuned.
An autonomous EU definition of ‘rights of custody' has been adopted: Article 2(9) of the Brussels II a Regulation, which is essentially the same as that found in Article 5 a) of the Hague Child Abduction Convention. There is equally an EU formula for determining the wrongfulness of a removal or retention: Article 2(11) of the Regulation. The latter embodies the key elements of Article 3 of the Convention, but adds an explanation as to the joint exercise of custody rights, an explanation which accords with international case law.
See: Case C-400/10 PPU J Mc.B. v. L.E, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].
Of greater significance is Article 11 of the Brussels II a Regulation.
Article 11(2) of the Brussels II a Regulation requires that when applying Articles 12 and 13 of the 1980 Hague Convention that the child is given the opportunity to be heard during the proceedings, unless this appears inappropriate having regard to his age or degree of maturity.
This obligation has led to a realignment in judicial practice in England, see:
Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2006] UKHL 51, [2007] 1 A.C. 619 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880] where Baroness Hale noted that the reform would lead to children being heard more frequently in Hague cases than had hitherto happened.
Re M. (A Child) (Abduction: Child's Objections to Return) [2007] EWCA Civ 260, [2007] 2 FLR 72, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 901]
The Court of Appeal endorsed the suggestion by Baroness Hale that the requirement under the Brussels II a Regulation to ascertain the views of children of sufficient age of maturity was not restricted to intra-European Community cases of child abduction, but was a principle of universal application.
Article 11(3) of the Brussels II a Regulation requires Convention proceedings to be dealt with within 6 weeks.
Klentzeris v. Klentzeris [2007] EWCA Civ 533, [2007] 2 FLR 996, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 931]
Thorpe LJ held that this extended to appeal hearings and as such recommended that applications for permission to appeal should be made directly to the trial judge and that the normal 21 day period for lodging a notice of appeal should be restricted.
Article 11(4) of the Brussels II a Regulation provides that the return of a child cannot be refused under Article 13(1) b) of the Hague Convention if it is established that adequate arrangements have been made to secure the protection of the child after his return.
Cases in which reliance has been placed on Article 11(4) of the Brussels II a Regulation to make a return order include:
France
CA Bordeaux, 19 janvier 2007, No 06/002739 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 947];
CA Paris 15 février 2007 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 979].
The relevant protection was found not to exist, leading to a non-return order being made, in:
CA Aix-en-Provence, 30 novembre 2006, N° RG 06/03661 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 717].
The most notable element of Article 11 is the new mechanism which is now applied where a non-return order is made on the basis of Article 13. This allows the authorities in the State of the child's habitual residence to rule on whether the child should be sent back notwithstanding the non-return order. If a subsequent return order is made under Article 11(7) of the Regulation, and is certified by the issuing judge, then it will be automatically enforceable in the State of refuge and all other EU-Member States.
Article 11(7) Brussels II a Regulation - Return Order Granted:
Re A. (Custody Decision after Maltese Non-return Order: Brussels II Revised) [2006] EWHC 3397 (Fam.), [2007] 1 FLR 1923 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 883]
Article 11(7) Brussels II a Regulation - Return Order Refused:
Re A. H.A. v. M.B. (Brussels II Revised: Article 11(7) Application) [2007] EWHC 2016 (Fam), [2008] 1 FLR 289, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 930].
The CJEU has ruled that a subsequent return order does not have to be a final order for custody:
Case C-211/10 PPU Povse v. Alpago, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1328].
In this case it was further held that the enforcement of a return order cannot be refused as a result of a change of circumstances. Such a change must be raised before the competent court in the Member State of origin.
Furthermore abducting parents may not seek to subvert the deterrent effect of Council Regulation 2201/2003 in seeking to obtain provisional measures to prevent the enforcement of a custody order aimed at securing the return of an abducted child:
Case C 403/09 PPU Detiček v. Sgueglia, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1327].
For academic commentary on the new EU regime see:
P. McEleavy ‘The New Child Abduction Regime in the European Community: Symbiotic Relationship or Forced Partnership?' [2005] Journal of Private International Law 5 - 34.