CASE

Download full text EN

Case Name

B. v. UK [2000] 1 FLR 1

INCADAT reference

HC/E/IT 480

Court

Name

European Court of Human Rights

Level

European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR)

Judge(s)
Mr J-P Costa (President), Sir Nicolas Bratza, Mr L Loucaides, Mr P Kuris, Mr W Fuhrmann, Mrs HS Greve and Mr K Traja

States involved

Requesting State

UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES

Requested State

ITALY

Decision

Date

14 September 1999

Status

Final

Grounds

Rights of Custody - Art. 3

Order

-

HC article(s) Considered

3 15

HC article(s) Relied Upon

-

Other provisions
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
Authorities | Cases referred to
Inze v. Austria (1987) 10 EHRR 394; McMichael v. UK (1995) 20 EHRR 205.

INCADAT comment

Article 12 Return Mechanism

Rights of Custody
What is a Right of Custody for Convention Purposes?

Inter-Relationship with International / Regional Instruments and National Law

European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR)
European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR) Judgments

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | FR | ES

Facts

The child, a boy, was 2 1/2 at the date of the alleged wrongful removal. He had spent all his life in England. The parents were not married and the father did not have any legal custody rights in respect of the child. On 3 March 1997 the mother took the boy to Italy, her State of origin.

On 17 February 1997 the father had issued an application before the English courts for a parental responsibility order. On 7 March the High Court dismissed an application for a declaration that the removal of the child was wrongful. On 18 April 1997 the Court of Appeal dismissed the father's appeal. The father then petitioned the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.

He complained that under Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, taken in conjunction with Article 8 of that instrument, his rights as an unmarried father whose child had been wrongfully removed from the jurisdiction were not protected in the same way as the rights of a married father. In particular he complained that he was not able to obtain an ex-parte declaration that his child had been unlawfully removed from England and Wales.

Ruling

Application inadmissible; There was an objective and reasonable justification for the difference in treatment between married and unmarried fathers with regard to the automatic acquisition of parental rights.

Grounds

Rights of Custody - Art. 3

The father complained that under Article 14 taken in conjunction with Article 8 of the European Convention that, because he was not married to the mother of his child, he was not able to obtain an ex parte declaration that his child had been unlawfully removed from England and Wales while a married father would have been. Article 8 of the Convention provides as follows: '1. Everyone has the right for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. 2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedom of others.' Article 14 of the Convention provides as follows: 'The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status.' The Court noted that under the relevant English legislation, the Children Act 1989, that married fathers had parental responsibility automatically, whilst unmarried ones needed to acquire it in accordance with the provisions of the Act. However, referring to its judgment in McMichael v UK the Court noted that the relationship between unmarried fathers and their children varied from ignorance and indifference to a close stable relationship indistinguishable from the conventional family-based unit. For this reason it had held that there exists an objective and reasonable justification for the difference in treatment between married and unmarried fathers with regard to the automatic acquisition of parental rights. Consequently the Court considered that the applicant's complaint of discrimination between married and unmarried fathers did not disclose an appearance of a violation of Art 14 in conjunction with Art 8 of the Convention. The Court held that refusing to treat persons, such as the applicant, who simply had contact with their child on an equal footing with persons who had the child in their care, such as those with custody, had an objective and reasonable justification. It lay in the different responsibilities involved in the two types of situation. For this reason the application is manifestly ill-founded within the meaning of Art 35(3) of the Convention and must be declared inadmissible in accordance with Art 35(4) thereof. For this reason the application was manifestly ill-founded within the meaning of Art 35(3) of the Convention and must be declared inadmissible in accordance with Art 35(4) thereof.

INCADAT comment

The position in England has now changed following the judgment of the House of Lords in Re H. (A Minor) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2000] 2 AC 291 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 268]. In this case it ruled that for a court to be vested with a right of custody it must be dealing with an application that raises matters of custody within the meaning of the Convention. Drawing a parallel with the position under the 1968 Brussels Convention, it held that the time at which a court will acquire such a right is, at the latest, when the proceedings have been served. Unless the proceedings are stayed or some equivalent action has been invoked the court's jurisdiction will be continuously invoked thereafter until the application is disposed of.

What is a Right of Custody for Convention Purposes?

Courts in an overwhelming majority of Contracting States have accepted that a right of veto over the removal of the child from the jurisdiction amounts to a right of custody for Convention purposes, see:

Australia
In the Marriage of Resina [1991] FamCA 33, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 257];

State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];

Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care and Hobbs, 24 September 1999, Family Court of Australia (Brisbane) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 294];

Austria
2 Ob 596/91, OGH, 05 February 1992, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 375];

Canada
Thomson v. Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 11].

The Supreme Court did draw a distinction between a non-removal clause in an interim custody order and in a final order. It suggested that were a non-removal clause in a final custody order to be regarded as a custody right for Convention purposes, that could have serious implications for the mobility rights of the primary carer.

Thorne v. Dryden-Hall, (1997) 28 RFL (4th) 297 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 12];

Decision of 15 December 1998, [1999] R.J.Q. 248 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 334];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
C. v. C. (Minor: Abduction: Rights of Custody Abroad) [1989] 1 WLR 654, [1989] 2 All ER 465, [1989] 1 FLR 403, [1989] Fam Law 228 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 34];

Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Foreign Custody Rights) [2006] UKHL 51, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880];

France
Ministère Public c. M.B. 79 Rev. crit. 1990, 529, note Y. Lequette [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 62];

Germany
2 BvR 1126/97, Bundesverfassungsgericht, (Federal Constitutional Court), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 338];

10 UF 753/01, Oberlandesgericht Dresden, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 486];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Bordera v. Bordera 1995 SLT 1176 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 183];

A.J. v. F.J. [2005] CSIH 36, 2005 1 SC 428 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 803];

South Africa
Sonderup v. Tondelli 2001 (1) SA 1171 (CC), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 309];

Switzerland
5P.1/1999, Tribunal fédéral suisse, (Swiss Supreme Court), 29 March 1999, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 427].

United States of America
In the United States, the Federal Courts of Appeals were divided on the appropriate interpretation to give between 2000 and 2010.

A majority followed the 2nd Circuit in adopting a narrow interpretation, see:

Croll v. Croll, 229 F.3d 133 (2d Cir., 2000; cert. den. Oct. 9, 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 313];

Gonzalez v. Gutierrez, 311 F.3d 942 (9th Cir 2002) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 493];

Fawcett v. McRoberts, 326 F.3d 491, 500 (4th Cir. 2003), cert. denied 157 L. Ed. 2d 732, 124 S. Ct. 805 (2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 494];

Abbott v. Abbott, 542 F.3d 1081 (5th Cir. 2008), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 989].

The 11th Circuit however endorsed the standard international interpretation.

Furnes v. Reeves, 362 F.3d 702 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 578].

The matter was settled, at least where an applicant parent has a right to decide the child's country of residence, or the court in the State of habitual residence is seeking to protect its own jurisdiction pending further decrees, by the US Supreme Court endorsing the standard international interpretation. 

Abbott v. Abbott, 130 S. Ct. 1983 (2010), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 1029].

The standard international interpretation has equally been accepted by the European Court of Human Rights, see:

Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No. 41615/07, 8 January 2009 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1001].

Confirmed by the Grand Chamber: Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No 41615/07, 6 July 2010 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1323].


Right to Object to a Removal

Where an individual does not have a right of veto over the removal of a child from the jurisdiction, but merely a right to object and to apply to a court to prevent such a removal, it has been held in several jurisdictions that this is not enough to amount to a custody right for Convention purposes:

Canada
W.(V.) v. S.(D.), 134 DLR 4th 481 (1996), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA17];

Ireland
W.P.P. v. S.R.W. [2001] ILRM 371, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 271];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re V.-B. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1999] 2 FLR 192, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 261];

S. v. H. (Abduction: Access Rights) [1998] Fam 49 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 36];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Pirrie v. Sawacki 1997 SLT 1160, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 188].

This interpretation has also been upheld by the Court of Justice of the European Union:
Case C-400/10 PPU J. McB. v. L.E., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].

The European Court held that to find otherwise would be incompatible with the requirements of legal certainty and with the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others, notably those of the sole custodian.

For academic commentary see:

P. Beaumont & P. McEleavy The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, Oxford, OUP, 1999, p. 75 et seq.;

M. Bailey The Right of a Non-Custodial Parent to an Order for Return of a Child Under the Hague Convention; Canadian Journal of Family Law, 1996, p. 287;

C. Whitman 'Croll v Croll: The Second Circuit Limits 'Custody Rights' Under the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction' 2001 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 605.

European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR) Judgments