CASE

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Case Name

Toren v. Toren, 26 F. Supp. 2d 240 (D. Mass. 1998)

INCADAT reference

HC/E/USf 225

Court

Country

UNITED STATES - FEDERAL JURISDICTION

Name

United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts

Level

First Instance

Judge(s)
O'Toole D.J.

States involved

Requesting State

ISRAEL

Requested State

UNITED STATES - FEDERAL JURISDICTION

Decision

Date

21 October 1998

Status

Final

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3 | Settlement of the Child - Art. 12(2)

Order

Application dismissed

HC article(s) Considered

3 12(2)

HC article(s) Relied Upon

3

Other provisions

-

Authorities | Cases referred to
Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995); Wanninger v. Wanninger, 850 F. Supp. 78 (D. Mass. 1994); Zuker v. Andrews, 2 F. Supp. 2d 134 (D. Mass 1998); Mozes v. Mozes, 19 F. Supp. 2d 1108 (C.D. Cal. 1998); Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993); Rydder v. Rydder, 49 F.3d 369 (8th Cir. 1995); In re Bates, No. CA 122-89, High Court of Justice, Family Division, United Kingdom (1989).

INCADAT comment

Aims & Scope of the Convention

Removal & Retention
Anticipated Non-Return
Habitual Residence
Habitual Residence

Exceptions to Return

Settlement of the child
Settlement of the Child
Commencement of Convention Proceedings

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | FR | ES

Facts

The children were 7 and 4 at the date of the alleged wrongful retention. They had lived in both Israel and the United States. In December 1994 the parents divorced and were granted joint rights of custody. With parental agreement the Rabbinical District Court in Jerusalem ordered that the children would reside in Israel for at least two years after the divorce.

In 1996 the parties executed an amendment to their separation agreement that provided that the children could live with the mother in Massachusetts but not beyond 21 July 2000. It further provided that the children could not stay outside of Israel after that date and that they would study in Israel during the 2000-2001 school year.

On 1 July 1997 the mother brought proceedings in Massachusetts to modify the agreement and the Israeli order by removing the requirement that the children should eventually return to Israel. The Massachusetts Court granted the mother temporary legal and physical custody of the children.

On 6 July 1998 the father applied for the return of the children under the Convention.

Ruling

Application dismissed; the children were habitually resident in the United States at the relevant date.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3

It did not matter that the United States was not intended to be the children's permanent residence, nor that it was intended that they would return to Israel in 2000. What may happen in the future ordinarily has little, if any, relevance to whether children have become settled in their place of residence so that it may be described as their habitual residence. Whether a child's residence has become settled depends on an analysis of the child's circumstances in that place and the parents' present, shared intentions regarding their child's presence there. On the facts, the children's habitual residence was the United States at the time of the alleged wrongful retention. They had been taken to the United States in 1996 in accordance with the parental agreement and it was the expectation of mother and father that the children would live in the United States for up to four years. At the time the mother applied to modify the custody arrangements, which was when the father contended the wrongful retention commenced, the children had been in the United States for approximately a year; they had formed significant relationships with other family members and with their peers and had became settled in the local community and its institutions.

Settlement of the Child - Art. 12(2)

The court held in the alternative that the requirements of Article 12(2) would have been made out to show that the children were now settled in their new environment. The court found that the wrongful retention dated from the mother's filing of custody proceedings in Massachusetts on 1 July 1997, rejecting the father's submission that the date he learnt of these proceedings should have been the date of the retention. The court noted that the language of Article 12 is unambiguous, measuring the one-year period from the date of the wrongful retention.

INCADAT comment

On 8 September 1999 the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit vacated the decision of the District Court and dismissed the petition for lack of jurisdiction finding there had been no wrongful removal or retention, and rejecting the father's anticipatory retention claim; see: Toren v. Toren, 191 F.3d 23 (1st Cir. 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 584].

Anticipated Non-Return

Courts have taken different views with regard to whether it is possible to have an 'anticipated non-return', i.e. whether it is possible for a lawful period of retention to become wrongful prior to the scheduled return date.

This possibility was implicitly accepted in:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re S. (Minors) (Child Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam 70 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 117];

New Zealand
P. v. The Secretary for Justice [2003] NZLR 54, [2003] NZFLR 673 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 575] (overturned on appeal - see below).

A greater number of courts have though refused to find a retention to be wrongful in advance of the scheduled return date:

China (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
B.L.W. v. B.W.L. [2007] 2 HKLRD 193, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 975];

France
Cass Civ 1ère 19/03/2002 (Arrêt n° 516 FS-P, pourvoi n° 00-17692), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 512];

New Zealand
P. v. Secretary for Justice [2004] 2 NZLR 28 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 583];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Watson v. Jamieson 1998 SLT 180 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 75];

United States of America
Toren v. Toren, 191 F.3d 23 (1st Cir 1999) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 584].

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Settlement of the Child

A uniform interpretation has not emerged with regard to the concept of settlement; in particular whether it should be construed literally or rather in accordance with the policy objectives of the Convention.  In jurisdictions favouring the latter approach the burden of proof on the abducting parent is clearly greater and the exception is more difficult to establish.

Jurisdictions in which a heavy burden of proof has been attached to the establishment of settlement include:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re N. (Minors) (Abduction) [1991] 1 FLR 413 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 106]

In this case it was held that settlement is more than mere adjustment to surroundings. It involves a physical element of relating to, being established in, a community and an environment. It also has an emotional constituent denoting security and stability.

Cannon v. Cannon [2004] EWCA CIV 1330, [2005] 1 FLR 169 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 598]

For academic criticism of Re N. see:

Collins L. et al., Dicey, Morris & Collins on the Conflict of Laws, 14th Edition, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2006, paragraph 19-121.

However, it may be noted that a more recent development in England has been the adoption of a child-centric assessment of settlement by the House of Lords in Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937].  This ruling may impact on the previous case law.

However there was no apparent weakening of the standard in the non-Convention case Re F. (Children) (Abduction: Removal Outside Jurisdiction) [2008] EWCA Civ. 842, [2008] 2 F.L.R. 1649,[INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 982].

United Kingdom - Scotland
Soucie v. Soucie 1995 SC 134 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 107]

For Article 12(2) to be activated the interest of the child in not being uprooted must be so cogent that it outweighs the primary purpose of the Convention, namely the return of the child to the proper jurisdiction so that the child's future may be determined in the appropriate place.

P. v. S., 2002 FamLR 2 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 963]

A settled situation was one which could reasonably be relied upon to last as matters stood and did not contain indications that it was likely to change radically or to fall apart. There had therefore to be some projection into the future.

C. v. C. [2008] CSOH 42, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 962]

United States of America
In re Interest of Zarate, No. 96 C 50394 (N.D. Ill. Dec. 23, 1996) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf  134]

A literal interpretation of the concept of settlement has been favoured in:

Australia
Director-General, Department of Community Services v. M. and C. and the Child Representative (1998) FLC 92-829 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 291];

China - (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
A.C. v. P.C. [2004] HKMP 1238 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 825].

The impact of the divergent interpretations is arguably most marked where very young children are concerned.

It has been held that settlement is to be considered from the perspective of a young child in:

Austria
7Ob573/90 Oberster Gerichtshof, 17/05/1990 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 378];

Australia
Secretary, Attorney-General's Department v. T.S. (2001) FLC 93-063 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 823];

State Central Authority v. C.R [2005] Fam CA 1050 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 824];

Israel
Family Application 000111/07 Ploni v. Almonit, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 938];

Monaco
R 6136; M. Le Procureur Général contre M. H. K., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/MC 510];

Switzerland
Präsidium des Bezirksgerichts St. Gallen (District Court of St. Gallen) (Switzerland), decision of 8 September 1998, 4 PZ 98-0217/0532N, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 431].

A child-centric approach has also been adopted in several significant appellate decisions with regard to older children, with emphasis placed on the children's views.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937];

France
CA Paris 27 Octobre 2005, 05/15032, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 814];

Québec
Droit de la Famille 2785, Cour d'appel de  Montréal, 5 December 1997, No 500-09-005532-973 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 653].

In contrast, a more objective assessment was favoured in the United States decision:

David S. v. Zamira S., 151 Misc. 2d 630, 574 N.Y.S.2d 429 (Fam. Ct. 1991) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USs 208]
The children, aged 3 and 1 1/2, had not established significant ties to their community in Brooklyn; they were not involved in school, extra-curricular, community, religious or social activities which children of an older age would be.

Commencement of Convention Proceedings

For the purposes of Art 12(1) the obligation on Contracting States to return children ‘forthwith' exists where less than 12 months has elapsed between the wrongful removal / retention and ‘the commencement of the proceedings before the judicial or administrative authority' in the Contracting State of refuge.

Courts in several Contracting States have considered the issue of the precise date of the commencement of such proceedings and have concluded that it is not enough for the purposes of Article 12(1) for the return application to have been filed with the relevant Central Authority in the State of refuge, rather civil return proceedings must have been initiated.  In this it has been noted that the reference to administrative authorities in Art 12 refers to States where administrative tribunals have jurisdiction for return petitions.

Canada
V.B.M. v. D.L.J. [2004] N.J. No. 321; 2004 NLCA 56 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 592].

United States of America
Wojcik v. Wojcik, 959 F. Supp. 413 (E.D. Mich. 1997) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 105].

The issue has been accepted without argument in both England & Wales and Scotland:

Re M. (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1996] 1 FLR 315, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 21];

Perrin v. Perrin 1994 SC 45, 1995 SLT 81, 1993 SCLR 949, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 108].