CASE

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Case Name

Simcox v. Simcox, 511 F.3d 594 (6th Cir. 2007)

INCADAT reference

HC/E/US 1141

Court

Country

UNITED STATES - FEDERAL JURISDICTION

Name

United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit

Level

Appellate Court

Judge(s)
Boggs, Chief Judge, Kennedy, Circuit Judge, and Jordan, District Judge.

States involved

Requesting State

MEXICO

Requested State

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Decision

Date

28 December 2007

Status

Final

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3 | Consent - Art. 13(1)(a) | Acquiescence - Art. 13(1)(a) | Grave Risk - Art. 13(1)(b) | Objections of the Child to a Return - Art. 13(2)

Order

-

HC article(s) Considered

3 13(1)(a) 13(1)(b) 13(2)

HC article(s) Relied Upon

13(1)(b)

Other provisions

-

Authorities | Cases referred to
Danaipour v. McLarey, 286 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2002); Friedrich v. Friedrich, 78 F.3d 1060 (6th Cir. 1996); Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396 (6th Cir. 1993); Van De Sande v. Van De Sande, 431 F.3d 567 (7th Cir. 2005); Simcox v. Simcox, 499 F.Supp.2d 946 (N.D.Ohio 2007); Walsh v. Walsh, 221 F.3d 204 (1st Cir. 2000); Baran v. Beaty, 479 F.Supp.2d 1257 (S.D.Ala. 2007); Elyashiv v. Elyashiv, 353 F.Supp.2d 394 (E.D.N.Y. 2005); Whallon v. Lynn, 230 F.3d 450 (1st Cir. 2000); Blondin v. Dubois, 238 F.3d 153 (2nd Cir. 2001); Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3rd Cir. 1995); Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007); Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003); de Silva v. Pitts, 481 F.3d 1279 (10th Cir. 2007); In re D.D., 440 F.Supp.2d 1283 (M.D.Fla. 2006); Mendez Lynch v. Mendez Lynch, 220 F.Supp.2d 1347 (M.D.Fla. 2002); Fabri v. Pritikin-Fabri, 221 F.Supp.2d 859 (N.D.Ill. 2001); McManus v. McManus, 354 F.Supp.2d 62 (D.Mass. 2005); Rodriguez v. Rodriguez, 33 F.Supp.2d 456 (D.Md. 1999).

INCADAT comment

Aims & Scope of the Convention

Habitual Residence
Habitual Residence

Exceptions to Return

Consent
Establishing Consent
Child's Objection
Requisite Age and Degree of Maturity
Exercise of Discretion

Implementation & Application Issues

Measures to Facilitate the Return of Children
Undertakings

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | FR | ES

Facts

The proceedings related to four children who were taken from Mexico to the United States of America by their mother on 31 January 2006. The parents, both U.S. citizens had married in 1991 and thereafter travelled extensively. From 2002, the birth year of the youngest child, the family lived in Mexico.

Family life was found to involve domestic violence carried out by the father on the mother and children. The precise level of the abuse was unclear. On 31 January 2006 the mother drove the four children to the United States of America. An older fifth child was at that time in France with the maternal grandmother. The father subsequently brought her back to Mexico.

On 12 January 2007 the father filed a petition for the return of the 4 children. On 29 June 2007 the District Court for the Northern District of Ohio (Simcox v. Simcox, 499 F.Supp.2d 946, (N.D.Ohio 2007)) upheld the objections of the two older children, but ordered the return of the two younger children, subject to undertakings. The mother appealed.

Ruling

Appeal allowed and case remitted to trial court; determination to be made as to what undertakings, if any, would be sufficient to ensure the safety of the children upon their return to Mexico pending the outcome of custody proceedings.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3


The mother challenged the District Court's finding that the children were habitually resident in Mexico on the date of their removal. The standard was to show that the children had a physical presence for an amount of time sufficient for acclimatization and that the place concerned had a degree of settled purpose from their perspective.

The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit rejected the mother's submission, noting that the family had stayed in Mexico since at least 2002. That the family had moved within Mexico or travelled internationally did not change the fact that Mexico was the country in which the family principally resided during the period in question.

Consent - Art. 13(1)(a)

The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit rejected the mother's submission that in an email sent in early January 2006 the father had consented to the removal of the children. In this it pointed to the secretive manner in which the removal had been effected. It further relied on reasoning it had employed previously with regard to acquiescence that each of the words and actions of a parent during the separation were not to be scrutinized for a possible waiver of custody rights, see: Friedrich v. Friedrich, 78 F.3d 1060 (6th Cir. 1996) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 82].

Acquiescence - Art. 13(1)(a)

The Court rejected the mother's submissions as to consent or acquiescence by the father. As to the latter it held that subsequent acquiescence required more than an isolated statement to a third-party. Each of the words and actions of a parent during the separation were not to be scrutinized for a possible waiver of custody rights.

Rather acquiescence required either: an act or statement with the requisite formality, such as testimony in a judicial proceeding; a convincing written renunciation of rights; or a consistent attitude of acquiescence over a significant period of time. The father's actions in securing a custody order in his favour 21 days after the abduction were determinative of the matter and not his casual statements to third parties.

Grave Risk - Art. 13(1)(b)

The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit noted that U.S. courts which had confronted situations involving very serious abuse tended to refuse return petitions, although in some situations a return was ordered notwithstanding a grave risk of harm, if sufficient protection was afforded. The Court placed Hague Convention cases dealing with abusive situations into three categories.

First, cases in which the abuse was relatively minor. In such cases it was unlikely that the risk of harm caused by return would rise to the level of a "grave risk" or otherwise place the child in an "intolerable situation". In such cases, undertakings would be largely irrelevant, since the Article 13(1)(b) threshold had not been met and the court would have no discretion to refuse to order return, with or without undertakings.

Second, there were cases in which the risk of harm was clearly grave, such as where there was credible evidence of sexual abuse, or similarly grave physical or psychological abuse, death threats, or serious neglect. In such cases, undertakings were likely to be insufficient to ameliorate the risk of harm, given the difficulty of enforcement and the likelihood that a serially abusive petitioner will not be deterred by a foreign court's orders. Consequently, unless the returning court could satisfy itself that the children would in fact, and not just in legal theory, be protected if returned to their abuser's custody, the court should refuse to grant the petition.

Third, there were cases that fell somewhere in the middle, where the abuse was substantially more than minor, but was less obviously intolerable. Whether, in such cases, the return of the child would subject him to a "grave risk" of harm or otherwise place him in an "intolerable situation" was a fact intensive inquiry that depended on careful consideration of several factors, including the nature and frequency of the abuse, the likelihood of its recurrence, and whether there are any enforceable undertakings that would sufficiently ameliorate the risk of harm to the child caused by his return.

Even in this category, undertakings should be adopted only where the court was satisfied that the parties were likely to obey them. Thus, undertakings would be inappropriate in cases where the petitioner had a history of ignoring court orders. The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit held that where a grave risk of harm had been established, ordering a return with "feckless undertakings" was worse than not ordering it at all.

The Court added that whilst the grave risk threshold was necessarily high, there was a danger of making it so insurmountable that district courts would be unable to exercise any discretion in all but the most egregious cases of abuse. Only where the grave risk threshold was met, did a discretion to refuse return arise and it was with this discretion that appropriate undertakings could be crafted.

Applying the above framework to the facts of the case, the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit held that it fell within the middle category. And whilst it was a close question, the mother had met her burden of establishing, by clear and convincing evidence, a grave risk of harm. However the risk was not so serious that undertakings must be dismissed out of hand. Nonetheless, the undertakings constructed by the District Court were deemed to be unworkable given that the mother herself had been ordered to return and there were doubts as to their enforceability.

Objections of the Child to a Return - Art. 13(2)


The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit rejected the mother's challenge that the trial court had erred in finding the third child, aged 8, to lack sufficient maturity to have his objections to a return considered. The latter was held to be a factual finding and so the trial court's conclusion was entitled to deference. The fact other courts had found 8 year-olds to have sufficient maturity did not mean the trial court had erred.

Authors of the summary: Jamie Yule and Peter McEleavy

INCADAT comment

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Establishing Consent

Different standards have been applied when it comes to establishing the Article 13(1) a) exception based on consent.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
In an early first instance decision it was held that ordinarily the clear and compelling evidence which was necessary would need to be in writing or at least evidenced by documentary material, see:

Re W. (Abduction: Procedure) [1995] 1 FLR 878, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 37].

This strict view has not been repeated in later first instance English cases, see:

Re C. (Abduction: Consent) [1996] 1 FLR 414 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 53];

Re K. (Abduction: Consent) [1997] 2 FLR 212 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 55].

In Re K. it was held that while consent must be real, positive and unequivocal, there could be circumstances in which a court could be satisfied that consent had been given, even though not in writing.  Moreover, there could also be cases where consent could be inferred from conduct.

Germany
21 UF 70/01, Oberlandesgericht Köln, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 491].

Convincing evidence is required to establish consent.

Ireland
R. v. R. [2006] IESC 7; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 817].

The Re K. approach was specifically endorsed by the Irish Supreme Court.

The Netherlands
De Directie Preventie, optredend voor haarzelf en namens F. (vader/father) en H. (de moeder/mother) (14 juli 2000, ELRO-nummer: AA6532, Zaaknr.R99/167HR); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NL 318].

Consent need not be for a permanent stay.  The only issue is that there must be consent and that it has been proved convincingly.

South Africa
Central Authority v. H. 2008 (1) SA 49 (SCA) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 900].

Consent could be express or tacit.

Switzerland
5P.367/2005 /ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 841];

5P.380/2006 /blb; Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile),[INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 895];

5P.1999/2006 /blb, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung ) (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 896];

The Swiss Supreme Court has held that with regard to consent and acquiescence, the left behind parent must clearly agree, explicitly or tacitly, to a durable change in the residence of the child.  To this end the burden is on the abducting parent to show factual evidence which would lead to such a belief being plausible.

United States of America
Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 808].

There must be a subjective assessment of what the applicant parent was actually contemplating. Consideration must also be given to the nature and scope of the consent.

Requisite Age and Degree of Maturity

Article 13(2) does not include a minimum age from which the objections of a child must be ascertained, rather it employs the formula that the child must have ‘attained an age and degree of maturity at which it is appropriate to take account of its views.'  Nevertheless it was the intention of the drafters that the exception would be primarily directed towards teenagers who were not prepared to go back to their home State.

Undoubtedly influenced by domestic family law practice, different patterns emerged in Contracting States as to the manner in which this exception has been applied.  Moreover those patterns may have evolved in jurisdictions during the life span of the application of the Convention, particularly as greater recognition has been paid to children as legal actors in their own right.  Indeed in the European Union, at least as regards intra-EU abductions, there is now an obligation that a child is given an opportunity to be heard, unless this appears inappropriate having regard to his age or maturity: Council Regulation 2201/2003, Art. 11(2).

The issue of age and maturity is also closely inter-related with the threshold applied to the exception, that is to say the criteria used to determine the circumstances in which it may be appropriate to take a child's objections into account, see for example: Re T. (Abduction: Child's Objections to Return) [2000] 2 FLR 192 [INCADAT cite HC/E/UKe 270]; Zaffino v. Zaffino [2006] 1 FLR 410 [INCADAT cite HC/E/UKe 813]; W. v. W. 2004 S.C. 63 IH (1 Div) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 805]; White v. Northumberland [2006] NZFLR 1105, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 902].

Australia

H.Z. v. State Central Authority [2006] Fam CA 466, INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 876

8 year old expressed objections which went beyond the mere expression of a preference or of ordinary wishes, however, in the light of her age and degree of maturity it would not be appropriate to take account of her views.

Director-General, Department of Families, Youth and Community Care v. Thorpe (1997) FLC 92-785 INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 212]

Objections of 9 year old upheld

Germany

4 UF 223/98, Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 820]

No fixed age limit.  The 8 year old concerned lacked sufficient maturity.

93 F 178/98 HK, Familengericht Flensburg (Family Court), 18 September 1998, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 325]

Objections of 6 year old gathered, but not upheld. 

Ireland

In the Matter of M. N. (A Child) [2008] IEHC 382, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 992

Detailed assessment of the age at which the views of a child should be heard in the light of Article 11(2) of the Brussels II a Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003).  Order made that the views of a 6 year old be ascertained.

New Zealand

U. v. D. [2002] NZFLR 529, INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 472

Objections of 7 year old considered, but not upheld.

Switzerland

5P.1/2005 /bnm, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 795

No minimum age.  Children aged 9 1/2 and 10 ½ heard, but their objections were not upheld.

5P.3/2007 /bnm, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 894

A child would have the requisite maturity if he was able to understand the nature of the return proceedings. It was not possible to give general guidance as to the minimum age from which a child would be able to deal with such an abstract issue. The Court noted however that research in the field of child psychology suggested a child would only be capable of such reasoning from the age of 11 or 12.  The court of appeal had therefore been entitled not to gather the views of children, then aged 9 and 7.

United Kingdom - England & Wales

Re W (Minors) [2010] EWCA 520 Civ, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 1324

Objections of siblings aged 8 and almost 6 upheld.

The Court accepted that the objections of a child of 6 falling within the exception would have been outside the contemplation of the drafters.  However, Wilson L.J. held that: "...over the last thirty years the need to take decisions about much younger children not necessarily in accordance with their wishes but at any rate in the light of their wishes has taken hold... ."

United Kingdom - Scotland

N.J.C. v. N.P.C. [2008] CSIH 34, 2008 S.C. 571, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 996

Views of 9 ½ year old not gathered; objections of her 15 and 11 year old siblings not upheld.

W. v. W. 2004 S.C. 63 IH (1 Div) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 805]

9 year old not of sufficient maturity to have her views considered - decision of trial judge reversed.

United States

Blondin v. Dubois, 238 F.3d 153 (2d Cir. 2001) INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 585]

No minimum age at which objections of a child can be ascertained.  Objections of 8 year old, within the context of an Art. 13(1)b) assessment, upheld.

Escobar v. Flores 183 Cal. App. 4th 737 (2010), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USs 1026]

No minimum age at which objections of a child can be ascertained.  Objections of 8 year old upheld.

Exercise of Discretion

Where it is established that a child objects to a return and he is of sufficient age and maturity at which it is appropriate to take his views into account, then the Court seised of the case will have a discretion whether or not to make a return order.

Different approaches have been espoused as to the manner in which this discretion should be exercised and the relevant factors that should be taken into consideration.

Australia 
Richards & Director-General, Department of Child Safety [2007] FamCA 65 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 904]

The appellate court found that the trial judge had erred in ruling that there had to be 'clear and compelling' reasons to frustrate the objectives of the Convention. The Court recalled that there were permitted exceptions to a mandatory return and where established these exceptions gave rise to a discretion. The relevant factors in the exercise of that discretion would vary according to each case, but would include giving significant weight to the objectives of the Convention in appropriate cases.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
The exercise of the discretion has caused difficulty for the Court of Appeal, in particular the factors to be considered and the weight to be accorded to them.

In the first key case: 

Re S. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1993] Fam 242 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 87]

The Court of Appeal held that a court's discretion to refuse the immediate return of a child must be exercised with regard to the overall approach of the Convention, i.e. a child's best interests are furthered by a prompt return, unless there are exceptional circumstances for ordering otherwise.

In Re R. (Child Abduction: Acquiescence) [1995] 1 FLR 716 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 60] contrasting views were put forward by two members of the panel.

Balcombe L.J., who was content for there to be a relatively flexible approach to the gateway findings of age and objection, held that the weight to be given to objections would vary with the age of the child, but the policy of the Convention would always be a very weighty factor.

Millet L.J., who advocated a stricter interpretation of the gateway filters, held that if it was appropriate to consider the views of a child then those views should prevail unless there were countervailing factors, which would include the policy of the Convention.

The third member of the panel gave his support to the interpretation of Balcombe L.J.

In Re T. (Abduction: Child's Objections to Return) [2000] 2 FCR 159 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 270] Ward L.J. took up the interpretation of Millett L.J.

The reasoning of Re. T. was implicitly accepted by a differently constituted Court of Appeal in:

Re J. (Abduction: Child's Objections to Return) [2004] EWCA CIV 428, [2004] 2 FLR 64 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 579].

However, it was rejected in Zaffino v. Zaffino (Abduction: Children's Views) [2005] EWCA Civ 1012; [2006] 1 FLR 410 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 813].

The correct approach to the exercise of judicial discretion in England is now clearly that advanced by Balcombe L.J.

In Zaffino v. Zaffino the Court also held that regard could be paid to welfare considerations in the exercise of the discretion.  In that case, welfare considerations militated in favour of a return.

In Vigreux v. Michel [2006] EWCA Civ 630, [2006] 2 FLR 1180 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 829] the Court of Appeal considered how discretion should be exercised in a case governed by the Brussels II a Regulation.  It held that the aims and policy of the Regulation had to be considered in addition to the policy of the Convention.

In Re M. (A Child) (Abduction: Child's Objections to Return) [2007] EWCA Civ 260, [2007] 2 FLR 72 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 901] the Court gave a general consideration to welfare considerations in deciding not to order the return of the 8 year old girl concerned.

The Court also appeared to accept an obiter comment raised in Vigreux v. Michel that there had to be an ‘exceptional' dimension to a case before a Court might consider exercising its discretion against a return order.

Exceptionality was raised in Nyachowe v. Fielder [2007] EWCA Civ 1129, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 964].  There a return order was made notwithstanding the strong objections of an independent 12 year old.  Particular emphasis was placed on the fact that the girl had come for a 2 week vacation.

In Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288  [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937] the House of Lords affirmed that it was wrong to import any test of exceptionality into the exercise of discretion under the Hague Convention. The circumstances in which a return may be refused were themselves exceptions to the general rule. That in itself was sufficient exceptionality. It was neither necessary nor desirable to import an additional gloss into the Convention.

Baroness Hale continued that where a discretion arose from the terms of the Convention itself, the discretion was at large.  In Article 13(2) cases the court would have to consider the nature and strength of the child's objections, the extent to which they were authentically the child's own or the product of the influence of the abducting parent, the extent to which they coincided or were at odds with other considerations which were relevant to the child's welfare, as well as general Convention considerations. The older the child, the greater the weight that objections would likely carry.

New Zealand
The Balcombe / Millett interpretations gave rise to contrasting High Court judgments. The Court of Appeal however voiced its preference for the Balcombe ‘shades of grey' approach in:

White v. Northumberland [2006] NZFLR 1105 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 902].

United Kingdom - Scotland
P. v. S., 2002 FamLR 2 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 963]

When exercising his discretion to make a return order, the trial judge noted that a return order should not be refused unless there were sound reasons for not giving effect to the objects of the Convention.  This was upheld on appeal.  The Inner House of the Court of Session further held that the existence of the Article 13 exceptions did not negate or eliminate the general policy of the Convention that wrongfully removed children should be returned.

Singh v. Singh 1998 SC 68 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 197]

The Court held that the welfare of the child was a general factor which should be taken into account in the exercise of discretion. A court should not limit itself to a consideration of the child's objection and the reasons for it. Nevertheless, the court held that a rule could not be laid down as to whether a child's welfare should be considered broadly or in detail; this was a matter within the discretion of the court concerned.

In W. v. W. 2004 S.C. 63 IH (1 Div) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 805] the Inner House held that a balancing exercise had to be carried out, and one of the factors in favour of return was the spirit and purpose of the Convention to allow the court of habitual residence to resolve the custody dispute.

United States of America
De Silva v. Pitts, 481 F.3d 1279, (10th Cir. 2007), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 903].

In upholding the views of a 14 year old boy the Court of Appeals for the 10th Circuit paid regard to his best interests but not to the policy of the Convention.

France
An appellate court limited the weight to be placed on the objections of the children on the basis that before being interviewed they had had no contact with the applicant parent and had spent a long period of time with the abducting parent. Moreover the allegations of the children had already been considered by the authorities in the children's State of habitual residence:

CA Bordeaux, 19 janvier 2007, No 06/002739 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 947].

Undertakings

Preparation of INCADAT case law analysis in progress.