HC/E/AU 830
Australia
Primera Instancia
Reino Unido - Inglaterra y Gales
Australia
22 November 2005
Definitiva
Traslado y retención - arts. 3 y 12 | Consentimiento - art. 13(1)(a)
Restitución ordenada
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The mother alleged that the father had consented to the removal and the court turned to consider whether the issue of consent, if established, would be relevant to whether the removal was in fact wrongful. The Court accepted the finding of the English Court of Appeal in Re P (A Child)(Abduction: Acquiescence) [2004] EWCA CIV 971 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 591] that consent did not fall to be considered for the purposes of establishing wrongfulness, but, it explored the meaning of the expression ' prima facie breach' which was used in the appellate judgment. It was argued for the mother that the classification of a prima facie breach should be regarded as an intermediary step and if consent were established the Court should then make a finding that there had been no breach. The Court rejected this argument and held that the appropriate interpretation to be given to the terminology used by the English Court of Appeal was that once it is established that a removal, or retention, was contrary to or interferes with rights of custody, that will be sufficient to find that the removal, or retention, was in breach of those rights. There could be no other interpretation of what may have been meant, which could be consistent with Article 3, nor the Convention read as a whole; and consistent also with the Court of Appeal's determination that consent does not fall to be considered for the purpose of establishing wrongfulness as otherwise there would be no need for Article 13 at all. Consequently it was not open to characterise the discharge of the onus under Article 13(1)(a) as in any sense a 'justification' of the act considered to be wrongful.
The mother's case that the father had consented to the removal was based on actions of and statements by the father. There was though no independent evidence to support the case of either side. A key argument for the mother was that in the aftermath of the separation in June 2004 she announced that it was her intention to return to Australia and the father had replied that this could not happen soon enough. The Court held however that this retort had to be considered in the context of the ending of the relationship and fell short of being a clear and unequivocal communication of consent on which the mother could properly rely. In this the trial judge referred by analogy to the comments of Lord Browne-Wilkinson in the English House of Lords' decision Re H. (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1998] AC 72 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 46]. In the light of all the evidence the trial judge concluded that there were no grounds for rejecting the father's testimony and that there were inconsistencies and improbabilities in the mother's evidence. She concluded by stating that even if she had found there to have been consent she would have exercised her discretion to make a return order.
In applying the comments of Lord Browne-Wilkinson in the English House of Lords' decision Re H. (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1998] AC 72 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 46] with regard to acquiescence to consent the Family Court was following the example of the English Court of Appeal in: Re P. (A Minor) (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1998] 2 FLR 835 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 179].
The classification of consent has given rise to difficulty. Some courts have indeed considered that the issue of consent goes to the wrongfulness of the removal or retention and should therefore be considered within Article 3, see:
Australia
In the Marriage of Regino and Regino v. The Director-General, Department of Families Services and Aboriginal and Islander Affairs Central Authority (1995) FLC 92-587 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 312];
France
CA Rouen, 9 mars 2006, N°05/04340, [INCADAT cite : HC/E/FR 897];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re O. (Abduction: Consent and Acquiescence) [1997] 1 FLR 924 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 54];
Re P.-J. (Children) [2009] EWCA Civ 588, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 1014].
Although the issue had ostensibly been settled in English case law, that consent was to be considered under Art 13(1) a), neither member of the two judge panel of the Court of Appeal appeared entirely convinced of this position.
Reference can equally be made to examples where trial courts have not considered the Art 3 - Art 13(1) a) distinction, but where consent, in terms of initially going along with a move, has been treated as relevant to wrongfulness, see:
Canada
F.C. c. P.A., Droit de la famille - 08728, Cour supérieure de Chicoutimi, 28 mars 2008, N°150-04-004667-072, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 969];
Switzerland
U/EU970069, Bezirksgericht Zürich (Zurich District Court), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 425];
United Kingdom - Scotland
Murphy v. Murphy 1994 GWD 32-1893 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 186].
The case was not considered in terms of the Art 3 - Art 13(1) a) distinction, but given that the father initially went along with the relocation it was held that there would be neither a wrongful removal or retention.
The majority view is now though that consent should be considered in relation to Article 13(1) a), see:
Australia
Director-General, Department of Child Safety v. Stratford [2005] Fam CA 1115, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 830];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re C. (Abduction: Consent) [1996] 1 FLR 414, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 53];
T. v. T. (Abduction: Consent) [1999] 2 FLR 912;
Re D. (Abduction: Discretionary Return) [2000] 1 FLR 24, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 267];
Re P. (A Child) (Abduction: Acquiescence) [2004] EWCA CIV 971, [2005] Fam. 293, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 591];
Ireland
B.B. v. J.B. [1998] 1 ILRM 136; sub nom B. v. B. (Child Abduction) [1998] 1 IR 299, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 287];
United Kingdom - Scotland
T. v. T. 2004 S.C. 323, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 997];
For a discussion of the issues involved see Beaumont & McEleavy, The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, OUP, 1999 at p. 132 et seq.
There are examples of cases where it has been argued that prima facie consent should be vitiated by alleged deception on the part of the abducting parent, see for example:
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re D. (Abduction: Discretionary Return) [2000] 1 FLR 24, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 267].
The fact that a document consenting to the removal of the children was presented to the mother on a pretext did not necessarily lead to the conclusion that it was a trap. The mother was found to have consented. But the trial judge nevertheless exercised his discretion to make a return order.
Israel
Family Application 2059/07 Ploni v. Almonit, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 940].
Allegation of deception rejected; the father's consent was found to be informed and since it had been relied upon by the mother, the father could not renege on his initial consent to the relocation.
Different standards have been applied when it comes to establishing the Article 13(1) a) exception based on consent.
United Kingdom - England & Wales
In an early first instance decision it was held that ordinarily the clear and compelling evidence which was necessary would need to be in writing or at least evidenced by documentary material, see:
Re W. (Abduction: Procedure) [1995] 1 FLR 878, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 37].
This strict view has not been repeated in later first instance English cases, see:
Re C. (Abduction: Consent) [1996] 1 FLR 414 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 53];
Re K. (Abduction: Consent) [1997] 2 FLR 212 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 55].
In Re K. it was held that while consent must be real, positive and unequivocal, there could be circumstances in which a court could be satisfied that consent had been given, even though not in writing. Moreover, there could also be cases where consent could be inferred from conduct.
Germany
21 UF 70/01, Oberlandesgericht Köln, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 491].
Convincing evidence is required to establish consent.
Ireland
R. v. R. [2006] IESC 7; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 817].
The Re K. approach was specifically endorsed by the Irish Supreme Court.
The Netherlands
De Directie Preventie, optredend voor haarzelf en namens F. (vader/father) en H. (de moeder/mother) (14 juli 2000, ELRO-nummer: AA6532, Zaaknr.R99/167HR); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NL 318].
Consent need not be for a permanent stay. The only issue is that there must be consent and that it has been proved convincingly.
South Africa
Central Authority v. H. 2008 (1) SA 49 (SCA) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 900].
Consent could be express or tacit.
Switzerland
5P.367/2005 /ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 841];
5P.380/2006 /blb; Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile),[INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 895];
5P.1999/2006 /blb, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung ) (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 896];
The Swiss Supreme Court has held that with regard to consent and acquiescence, the left behind parent must clearly agree, explicitly or tacitly, to a durable change in the residence of the child. To this end the burden is on the abducting parent to show factual evidence which would lead to such a belief being plausible.
United States of America
Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 808].
There must be a subjective assessment of what the applicant parent was actually contemplating. Consideration must also be given to the nature and scope of the consent.
There is authority that consent might validly be given to a future removal, see:
Canada
Decision of 4 September 1998 [1998] R.D.F. 701, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 333].
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re L. (Abduction: Future Consent) [2007] EWHC 2181 (Fam), [2008] 1 FLR 915; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 993].
It was held that the happening of the event must be reasonably ascertainable and there must not have been a material change in the circumstances since the consent was given.
United Kingdom - Scotland
Zenel v. Haddow 1993 SC 612, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 76].
For a criticism of the majority view in Zenel v. Haddow, see:
Case commentary 1993 SCLR 872 at 884, 885;
G. Maher, Consent to Wrongful Child Abduction under the Hague Convention, 1993 SLT 281;
P. Beaumont and P. McEleavy, The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, OUP, Oxford, 1999 at pp. 129, 130.