CASO

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Nombre del caso

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006)

Referencia INCADAT

HC/E/USf 879

Tribunal

País

Estados Unidos de América - Competencia Federal

Instancia

Tribunal de Apelaciones

Estados involucrados

Estado requirente

Finlandia

Estado requerido

Estados Unidos de América - Competencia Federal

Fallo

Fecha

24 April 2006

Estado

Definitiva

Fundamentos

Residencia habitual - art. 3 | Traslado y retención - arts. 3 y 12

Fallo

Apelación desestimada, solicitud desestimada

Artículo(s) del Convenio considerados

3

Artículo(s) del Convenio invocados en la decisión

3

Otras disposiciones

-

Jurisprudencia | Casos referidos

-

Publicado en

-

INCADAT comentario

Objetivos y ámbito de aplicación del Convenio

Traslado y retención
Momento del traslado y retención
Residencia habitual
Residencia habitual
¿Puede dejarse a un menor sin residencia habitual?
¿Puede un menor tener más de una residencia habitual?
Mudanza o instalación en el extranjero
Instalación en el extranjero por tiempo indefinido
Instalación en el extranjero por un tiempo limitado
Acuerdos de custodia alternada y acuerdos o decisiones judiciales que establecen la jurisdicción competente

SUMARIO

Sumario disponible en EN | FR

Facts

The application related to a girl born in Russia in April 1992. She lived in Russia with her parents until 1997 when the parents divorced. She then moved to Finland with her mother.

Both parents remarried and the girl saw her father periodically visiting him in Europe or in the United States. The girl frequently had problems securing a visa to the United States and the parents took steps to secure the girl permanent resident status there. This was finalised in a visit in October 2002.

In the winter of 2002/3 the girl and her parents began to plan for her to make a longer visit to the United States. The girl began to express a wish to relocate to the United States.

In June 2003 the girl travelled to the United States. The purpose of the trip was the subject of dispute. The father and girl held that it was a trial, at the end of which the girl would decide whether she would remain permanently. The mother argued that it was a summer visit and that the girl was to return on 10 August.

During the vacation the girl took academic classes, studied photography, travelled in the United States, and cultivated her relationships with her step-mother and step-family. In addition, she was admitted to a private American school where she enrolled to attend class in the autumn. When the girl did not return to Finland in August 2003 the mother filed a return petition.

The United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania. (D.C. Civil No. 04-cv-00662) dismissed the application finding that the girl had become acclimatized during her stay was as a consequence habitually resident in the United States by the date of her retention. The mother appealed.

Ruling

Appeal dismissed and application dismissed; the child had become habitually resident in the United States at the time of the retention, therefore the latter action was not wrongful.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3

The Court of Appeals held that the inquiry into a child's habitual residence was a fact-intensive determination that could not be reduced to a predetermined formula and necessarily varied with the circumstances of each case. Referring to the earlier 3rd Circuit judgment in Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217, 222 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/US 83] the Court held that a child's habitual residence was "the place where he or she has been physically present for an amount of time sufficient for acclimatization and which has a 'degree of settled purpose' from the child's perspective." Consideration would also be given to parental intention since the child's knowledge of the parents' views would colour its attitudes to the contacts it was making. Parental intention was also relevant to the time required for the child to become acclimatized and to demonstrate a degree of settled purpose to live in the United States. The Court found that when she left for the United States in June 2003 the parents intended that the girl would be able to choose where she would live at the end of the summer. The Court concluded that although the short period of time spent in the United States made the determination finely balanced the evidence pointed to the child having become habitually resident in the United States by the time in mid July when the mother first asked that she return. In reaching this decision the Court was heavily influenced by the maturity and interlligence of the girl. The Court recognised that the bar for acclimatization should not be set too low, lest an incentive be given to abducting parents, but it was satisfied that in the unique circumstances of the case the girl's experiences in the United States prior to her retention crossed the line that demarcated acclimatization and indicated a degree of settled purpose from her perspective. The Court noted that whilst the 3rd Circuit focussed almost exclusively on shared parental intention when determining the habitual residence of young children, this was not the case with regard to older children. Where the latter were concerned parental intention was not excluded but was given some weight. The Court noted that in the Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 301] line of jurisprudence there was a focus on shared parental intention in all cases in order to minimize the incentives for unilateral action on the part of either parent. The Court affirmed however that since both shared parental intent and acclimatization supported a finding that the girl was habitually resident in the United States, it need not decide how it would weigh these factors against each other if they conflicted, which was the focus of Mozes.

Removal and Retention - Arts 3 and 12

The District Court ruled that the date of the retention was 28 August, the date on which the mother filed her return petition. The mother argued that this was in error for the relevant date should have been 10 August, the date on which the child was to return to Finland. The Court of Appeals held that ultimately it was not required to decide whether a child was not retained under the Convention until a parent unequivocally communicated his or her desire to regain custody. The Court assumed that this standard applied, but held that it was clearly erroneous for the District Court to find that the mother had not clearly communicated her opposition to the girl's presence in the United States until she filed the petition for return.

INCADAT comment

Commencement of Removal / Retention

Primarily this will be a factual question for the court seised of the return petition. The issue may be of relevance where there is doubt as to whether the 12 month time limit referred to in Article 12(1) has elapsed, or indeed if there is uncertainty as to whether the alleged wrongful act has occurred before or after the entry into force of the Convention between the child's State of habitual residence and the State of refuge.

International Dimension

A legal issue which has arisen and been settled with little controversy in several States, is that as the Convention is only concerned with international protection for children from removal or retention and not with removal or retention within the State of their habitual residence, the removal or retention in question must of necessity be from the jurisdiction of the courts of the State of the child's habitual residence and not simply from the care of holder of custody rights.

Australia
Murray v. Director, Family Services (1993) FLC 92-416, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 113]. 

State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];  Kay J. confirmed that time did not run, for the purposes of Art. 12, from the moment the child arrived in the State of refuge.

State Central Authority v. C.R. [2005] Fam CA 1050, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];  Kay J. held that the precise determination of time had to be calculated in accordance with local time at the place where the wrongful removal had occurred.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re H.; Re S. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1991] 2 AC 476, [1991] 3 All ER 230, [1991] 2 FLR 262, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 115].

United Kingdom - Scotland
Findlay v. Findlay 1994 SLT 709, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 184].

However in a very early Convention case Kilgour v. Kilgour 1987 SC 55, 1987 SLT 568, 1987 SCLR 344, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 116], the parties were at one in proceeding on the basis that the relevant removal for the purposes of the Convention was a removal in breach of custody rights rather than a removal from the country where the child previously lived. 

Agreement on the issue of the commencement of return was not reached in the Israeli case Family Application 000111/07 Ploni v. Almonit, [INCADAT cite:  HC/E/IL 938].  One judge accepted that the relevant date was the date of removal from the State of habitual residence, whilst the other who reached a view held that it was the date of arrival in Israel. 

Communication of Intention Not to Return a Child

Different positions have been adopted as to whether a retention will commence from the moment a person decides not to return a child, or whether the retention only commences from when the other custody holder learns of the intention not to return or that intention is specifically communicated.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
In Re S. (Minors) (Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam 70, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 117], the English High Court was prepared to accept that an uncommunicated decision by the abductor was of itself capable of constituting an act of wrongful retention.

Re A.Z. (A Minor) (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1993] 1 FLR 682, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 50]: the moment the mother unilaterally decided not to return the child was not the point in time at which the retention became wrongful. This was no more than an uncommunicated intention to retain the child in the future from which the mother could still have resiled.  The retention could have originated from the date of the aunt's ex parte application for residence and prohibited steps orders.

United States of America
Slagenweit v. Slagenweit, 841 F. Supp. 264 (N.D. Iowa 1993), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 143].

The wrongful retention did not begin to run until the mother clearly communicated her desire to regain custody and asserted her parental right to have the child live with her.

Zuker v. Andrews, 2 F. Supp. 2d 134 (D. Mass. 1998) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKf 122], the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts held that a retention occurs when, on an objective assessment, a dispossessed custodian learns that the child is not to be returned.

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 879].

The Court of Appeals held that ultimately it was not required to decide whether a child was not retained under the Convention until a parent unequivocally communicated his or her desire to regain custody, but it assumed that this standard applied.

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Can a Child be left without a Habitual Residence?

In early Convention case law there was a clear reluctance on the part of appellate courts to find that a child did not have a habitual residence.  This was because of the concern that such a conclusion would render the instrument inoperable, see:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re F. (A Minor) (Child Abduction) [1992] 1 FLR 548 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 40];

Australia
Cooper v. Casey (1995) FLC 92-575 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 104].

However, in more recent years there has been a recognition that situations do exist where it is not possible to regard a child as being habitually resident anywhere:

Australia
D.W. & Director-General, Department of Child Safety [2006] FamCA 93, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 870].

In this case the majority accepted that their decision could be said to deny the child of the benefit of the Convention. However, the majority argued that the interests of children generally could be adversely affected if courts were too willing to find that a parent who had attempted a reconciliation in a foreign country, was to be found, together with the child, to have become "habitually resident" in that foreign country.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
W. and B. v. H. (Child Abduction: Surrogacy) [2002] 1 FLR 1008 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 470];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Robertson v. Robertson 1998 SLT 468 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 194];

D. v. D. 2002 SC 33 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 351];

New Zealand
S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 816];

United States of America
Delvoye v. Lee, 329 F.3d 330 (3rd Cir. 2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 529];

Ferraris v. Alexander, 125 Cal. App. 4th 1417 (2005) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/US 797].

Can a Child have more than one Habitual Residence?

Academic commentators have long held that if the factual nature of the connecting factor is to be respected then situations may arise where an individual is habitually resident in more than one place at a particular time, see in particular:

Clive E. M. ‘The Concept of Habitual Residence' Juridical Review (1997), p. 137.

However, the Court of Appeal in England has accepted in the context of divorce jurisdiction that it is possible for an adult to be habitually resident in two places simultaneously, see:

Ikimi v. Ikimi [2001] EWCA Civ 873, [2002] Fam 72.

Courts in Convention proceedings have though held to the view that a child can only have one habitual residence, see for example:

Canada
SS-C c GC, Cour supérieure (Montréal), 15 août 2003, n° 500-04-033270-035, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 916];

Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re V. (Abduction: Habitual Residence) [1995] 2 FLR 992, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 45].

In this case where the children's lives alternated between Greece and England the court held that their habitual residence also alternated.  The court ruled out their having concurrent habitual residences in both Greece and England.

United Kingdom - Northern Ireland
Re C.L. (A Minor); J.S. v. C.L., transcript, 25 August 1998, High Court of Northern Ireland, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKn 390];

United States of America
Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, (6th Cir. 1993), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 142].

Relocations

Where there is clear evidence of an intention to commence a new life in another State then the existing habitual residence will be lost and a new one acquired.

In common law jurisdictions it is accepted that acquisition may be able to occur within a short period of time, see:

Canada
DeHaan v. Gracia [2004] AJ No.94 (QL), [2004] ABQD 4, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 576];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 2];

Re F. (A Minor) (Child Abduction) [1992] 1 FLR 548, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 40].

In civil law jurisdictions it has been held that a new habitual residence may be acquired immediately, see:

Switzerland
Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) Décision du 15 novembre 2005, 5P.367/2005 /ast, [INCADAT cite : HC/E/CH 841].

Conditional Relocations 

Where parental agreement as regards relocation is conditional on a future event, should an existing habitual residence be lost immediately upon leaving that country? 

Australia
The Full Court of the Family Court of Australia answered this question in the negative and further held that loss may not even follow from the fulfilment of the condition if the parent who aspires to relocate does not clearly commit to the relocation at that time, see:

Kilah & Director-General, Department of Community Services [2008] FamCAFC 81, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 995].

However, this ruling was overturned on appeal by the High Court of Australia, which held that an existing habitual residence would be lost if the purpose had a sufficient degree of continuity to be described as settled.  There did not need to be a settled intention to take up ‘long term' residence:

L.K. v. Director-General Department of Community Services [2009] HCA 9, (2009) 253 ALR 202, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 1012].

Open-Ended Moves

Where a move is open ended, or potentially open ended, the habitual residence at the time of the move may also be lost and a new one acquired relatively quickly, see:

United Kingdom - England and Wales (Non-Convention case)
Al Habtoor v. Fotheringham [2001] EWCA Civ 186, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 875];

New Zealand
Callaghan v. Thomas [2001] NZFLR 1105 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 413];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Cameron v. Cameron 1996 SC 17, 1996 SLT 306, 1996 SCLR 25 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 71];

Moran v. Moran 1997 SLT 541 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 74];

United States of America
Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 879].

Time Limited Moves

Where a move abroad is time limited, even if it is for an extended period of time, there has been acceptance in certain Contracting States that the existing habitual residence can be maintained throughout, see:

Denmark
Ø.L.K., 5. April 2002, 16. afdeling, B-409-02 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DK 520];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re H. (Abduction: Habitual Residence: Consent) [2000] 2 FLR 294; [2000] 3 FCR 412 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 478];

United States of America
Morris v. Morris, 55 F. Supp. 2d 1156 (D. Colo., Aug. 30, 1999) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 306];

Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 301].

However, where a move was to endure for two years the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit found that a change of habitual residence occurred shortly after the move, see:

Whiting v. Krassner 391 F.3d 540 (3rd Cir. 2004) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/US 778].

In an English first instance decision it was held that a child had acquired a habitual residence in Germany after five months even though the family had only moved there for a six month secondment, see:

Re R. (Abduction: Habitual Residence) [2003] EWHC 1968 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 580].

The Court of Appeal of China (Hong Kong SAR) found that a 21 month move led to a change in habitual residence:

B.L.W. v. B.W.L. [2007] 2 HKLRD 193, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 975].

Shuttle Custody Agreement & Agreements / Courts Order fixing Jurisdiction

Convention case law reveals several examples of cases where parties or a court seek to pre-empt future litigation over the appropriate venue by fixing jurisdiction in the Contracting State currently seized of the action. In such cases it is usually envisaged that the child will move for an extended time to another State, often pursuant to a ‘shuttle custody arrangement,' before returning to the designated home State.

Experience has shown however that disputes will frequently arise as to where the child is habitually resident if he or she has spent an extended period out of the designated home State.

In cases where the child is not returned to the designated home State attempts to enforce a jurisdiction agreement in the other Contracting State have failed, see:

Sweden
A.F.J. v. T.J., Supreme Administrative Court (Regeringsrätten) RÅ 1996 ref 52, 9 May 1996 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/SE 80];

Canada
Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800].

However, in a case where a child was removed, with his willing participation, to the designated home State the order as to jurisdiction was upheld in the face of a subsequent return application, see:

Israel
Family case 107064/99 K.L v. N.D.S., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 835].

For an example of a case where the parents sought to enter a jurisdiction clause in a custody agreement yet not restrict any evolution in the children's habitual residence, see:

New Zealand

Winters v. Cowen [2002] NZFLR 927 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 473].

The interpretation given by the Regeringsratten (Sweden) in A.F.J. v. T.J., that a child's habitual residence will change notwithstanding a jurisdiction clause in a shuttle custody arrangement mirrors that adopted by:

the Court of Session in Scotland in Watson v. Jamieson 1998 SLT 180 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 75];

the New Zealand Court of Appeal in Punter v Secretary for Justice [2004] 2 NZLR 28 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 583], and,

the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (Canada) in Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800].

Reference should equally be made to the Report of the Third Special Commission Meeting to Review the Operation of the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction (17 - 21 March 1997) at para 16:

'Alternating custody agreements, or 'shuttle agreements' might give rise to problems in determining the habitual residence of the child. The question arises whether such agreements may determine habitual residence in a way that would be binding on courts requested to order the return of the child, eg by including an additional clause that non-return of the child on the date agreed upon constitutes unlawful retention under the Convention or other kinds of choice of court clauses. Such choice of court clauses do not fall to be recognised under the Convention, however, and parties to such an agreement should not have the power to create a habitual residence that does not match with the factual habitual residence of the child. This is, firstly, because the concept of 'habitual residence' under the Convention is regarded as a purely factual matter and, secondly, because the Convention provides for a very specific remedy applicable in cases of emergency and is not meant to solve parental disputes on the merits of custody rights.'

For academic commentary see:

Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' OUP, Oxford, 1999 at p.p. 99-101;

Schiratzki J. 'Friends at Odds - Construing Habitual Residence for Children in Sweden and the United States,' International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family (2001), 297 - 326;

Schuz R. ‘Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice' (2001) Child and Family Law Quarterly 1.