HC/E/UKe 115
UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES
House of Lords
Superior Appellate Court
CANADA
UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES
13 June 1991
Final
Removal and Retention - Arts 3 and 12
Appeal dismissed, application dismissed
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The court held that the reference in Article 12 to the one year period clearly indicated that for the purposes of the Convention removal and retention were events occurring on a specific occasion. The latter concept was not a continuing state of affairs. It was also noted that removal and retention were alternatives: throughout the Convention they are linked by ‘or’ and not ‘and’. Furthermore, removal and retention mean removal and retention out of the jurisdiction of the courts of the child’s State of habitual residence, not out of the care of the parent having custodial rights. On this basis the court held that the children had been wrongfully removed but this had taken place before the Convention had entered into force between the United Kingdom and Ontario.
The Court of Appeal decision is reported at: [1991] 2 WLR 62, [1991] 1 All ER 836.
Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.
Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.
Primarily this will be a factual question for the court seised of the return petition. The issue may be of relevance where there is doubt as to whether the 12 month time limit referred to in Article 12(1) has elapsed, or indeed if there is uncertainty as to whether the alleged wrongful act has occurred before or after the entry into force of the Convention between the child's State of habitual residence and the State of refuge.
International Dimension
A legal issue which has arisen and been settled with little controversy in several States, is that as the Convention is only concerned with international protection for children from removal or retention and not with removal or retention within the State of their habitual residence, the removal or retention in question must of necessity be from the jurisdiction of the courts of the State of the child's habitual residence and not simply from the care of holder of custody rights.
Australia
Murray v. Director, Family Services (1993) FLC 92-416, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 113].
State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232]; Kay J. confirmed that time did not run, for the purposes of Art. 12, from the moment the child arrived in the State of refuge.
State Central Authority v. C.R. [2005] Fam CA 1050, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232]; Kay J. held that the precise determination of time had to be calculated in accordance with local time at the place where the wrongful removal had occurred.
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re H.; Re S. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1991] 2 AC 476, [1991] 3 All ER 230, [1991] 2 FLR 262, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 115].
United Kingdom - Scotland
Findlay v. Findlay 1994 SLT 709, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 184].
However in a very early Convention case Kilgour v. Kilgour 1987 SC 55, 1987 SLT 568, 1987 SCLR 344, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 116], the parties were at one in proceeding on the basis that the relevant removal for the purposes of the Convention was a removal in breach of custody rights rather than a removal from the country where the child previously lived.
Agreement on the issue of the commencement of return was not reached in the Israeli case Family Application 000111/07 Ploni v. Almonit, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 938]. One judge accepted that the relevant date was the date of removal from the State of habitual residence, whilst the other who reached a view held that it was the date of arrival in Israel.
Communication of Intention Not to Return a Child
Different positions have been adopted as to whether a retention will commence from the moment a person decides not to return a child, or whether the retention only commences from when the other custody holder learns of the intention not to return or that intention is specifically communicated.
United Kingdom - England & Wales
In Re S. (Minors) (Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam 70, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 117], the English High Court was prepared to accept that an uncommunicated decision by the abductor was of itself capable of constituting an act of wrongful retention.
Re A.Z. (A Minor) (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1993] 1 FLR 682, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 50]: the moment the mother unilaterally decided not to return the child was not the point in time at which the retention became wrongful. This was no more than an uncommunicated intention to retain the child in the future from which the mother could still have resiled. The retention could have originated from the date of the aunt's ex parte application for residence and prohibited steps orders.
United States of America
Slagenweit v. Slagenweit, 841 F. Supp. 264 (N.D. Iowa 1993), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 143].
The wrongful retention did not begin to run until the mother clearly communicated her desire to regain custody and asserted her parental right to have the child live with her.
Zuker v. Andrews, 2 F. Supp. 2d 134 (D. Mass. 1998) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKf 122], the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts held that a retention occurs when, on an objective assessment, a dispossessed custodian learns that the child is not to be returned.
Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 879].
The Court of Appeals held that ultimately it was not required to decide whether a child was not retained under the Convention until a parent unequivocally communicated his or her desire to regain custody, but it assumed that this standard applied.